- The Maccabean crisis (167-164BC) created a law-observant zeal at a time when law-observance was slowly fading away. Arguably the Pharisees and Essenes eventually flowed out of this crisis. If we want to understand the pre-Christian Paul, here's where we begin.
- Messianic expectation really rises here as well. There really wasn't much expectation of a messiah going on prior to the early 100s BC. The idea that God might raise up an individual to defeat foreign oppressors gets a real push in this crisis and in the two books that will be written about it (1 and 2 Maccabees).
- The Roman take-over in 63BC, including a defiling of the temple, heightens the desire that God raise up someone to defeat foreign powers, now the Romans. Psalms of Solomon gives us perhaps the best expression of what the Jews were wanting in a Messiah.
- So N. T. Wright's sense of Jewish exile is heightened by these events and I personally wouldn't be surprised if John the Baptist has some Essene connection, which again would heighten the background of Christianity in a group alienated even from its own Judaism.
- Also essential to the pre-Christian mix is the rise of apocalyptic Judaism in the early 100s BC and its continuance in groups like the Essenes. Here there was a sense that human power was not necessary to see the defeat of foreign powers because God had his angelic armies. Again, not much of this going on until the 100s BC.
Showing posts with label intertestamental period. Show all posts
Showing posts with label intertestamental period. Show all posts
Wednesday, October 07, 2015
Zeal for the Law (Context of NT Judaism)
Yesterday, I ended up in my honor's classes giving a quick sketch of how the two hundred years of Jewish history before Jesus formed the Judaism from which New Testament Christianity emerged.
Saturday, December 27, 2014
Why Study the Intertestamental Period?
I used to tell undergraduate students that I would not be surprised if they gained more understanding of the New Testament from taking Intertestamental Jewish Literature than they would from Old Testament Survey. I still remember one student who went on to Princeton telling me that this course better prepared her for seminary than any other course she had at IWU.
Why? Here are some reasons:
Why? Here are some reasons:
- While the OT provides much of the content background for the NT (it provides the bullets), the Intertestamental Period provided the lens through which that content was filtered and read (it aimed the gun).
- We tend to read the NT out of the blue, as a contextless text that dropped out of heaven (or rather, we are unaware of the way our modern church context informs our reading of the NT texts). Once we are aware of the historical and literary context of the first century, it becomes increasingly difficult for us to read the NT in a timeless bubble (aka, what our Sunday School teacher told us).
- For those who have grown up with a certain kind of fundamentalism, there are strategies and techniques we are taught that probably don't make sense if we could step back and get some perspective. A reflective person begins to realize this when they read non-canonical writings and increasingly sense a contradiction in his or her method. The drive for consistency will gnaw at them.
- In short, the writings of "early Judaism" inevitably increase the Bible reader's objectivity and sense of historical consciousness, whereas Bible courses can sometimes merely confirm a person's initial biases (or those of the teacher).
Fun memories!
Monday, January 09, 2012
Monday Review: Resurrection in the Testaments
I have started off the year reading James Charlesworth's (editor), Resurrection: The Origin and Future of a Biblical Doctrine. I'm playing with the idea of designating Mondays for a post on something I'm reading, and I'll try to move between categories.
The first chapter is by Charlesworth himself, of Princeton Seminary. I almost said formerly because he is perhaps the last vestige of a past, historically oriented biblical studies program there. From what I hear, don't go there any more if you're interested in this sort of stuff. It's all theological interpretation now with a rapidly diminishing number of doctoral students in biblical studies.
Charlesworth's chapter gives a helpful catalog of how resurrection language in Jewish literature can mean a lot of things, ranging from national restoration to recovery from embarrassment. The second chapter is by C. D. Elledge (who also has a book analyzing Josephus on the subject). I found it the most concise and clear overview of the topic I've ever seen.
But my intention today is not to be helpful ;-) I wanted to jot down some notes for my own research. In chapter 4, Elledge overviews passages in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs that show belief in resurrection. Here are some strings for my fingers:
The first chapter is by Charlesworth himself, of Princeton Seminary. I almost said formerly because he is perhaps the last vestige of a past, historically oriented biblical studies program there. From what I hear, don't go there any more if you're interested in this sort of stuff. It's all theological interpretation now with a rapidly diminishing number of doctoral students in biblical studies.
Charlesworth's chapter gives a helpful catalog of how resurrection language in Jewish literature can mean a lot of things, ranging from national restoration to recovery from embarrassment. The second chapter is by C. D. Elledge (who also has a book analyzing Josephus on the subject). I found it the most concise and clear overview of the topic I've ever seen.
But my intention today is not to be helpful ;-) I wanted to jot down some notes for my own research. In chapter 4, Elledge overviews passages in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs that show belief in resurrection. Here are some strings for my fingers:
- Because the book has obvious Christian interpolations and yet a soundly Jewish base, it surely represents Christian Judaism of the late first or early second century. The documents likely started as pre-Christian Jewish documents, perhaps Essene in provenance, but they were preserved and expanded by Christian Jews even after the destruction of Jerusalem.
- This plays into my hunch that a good deal of early Christian Judaism flowed directly from an Essene background, including John the Baptist. I'd love one day before I die to write up a hypothesis.
- The fact that Testament of Benjamin is one of the most clearly edited by Christians and yet looks to a restored temple (Benj 9.2) corroborates my theory elsewhere that Christians did not see a contradiction between the temple system and belief that Christ's death had decisive atoning significance for Israel. Similarly, it shows that the political restoration of Israel was important in some early Christian belief after Jerusalem's destruction.
- As far as the afterlife, the Testament of Judah 25.4 has no resurrection for the wicked (who suffer in Gehenna in Zebulon 10.1-4). While it does not preclude a total resurrection of the righteous, it focuses on resurrection for those who died in sorrow, poverty, hungry, and for the Lord.
- Judah 25.1 is very interesting because it mentions the resurrection of the patriarchs, as in the gospels (e.g., Matt. 8:11; Luke 13:28 ). The resurrected sons of Jacob rule over the twelve tribes of Israel, which is interestingly what the twelve disciples do in Matt. 19:28.
Sunday, November 13, 2011
linear views of history born 2
... One pattern that emerged in the first millennium before Christ is for a people group to divide their past history into stages, looking back to a Golden Age of some sort that deteriorated over time. [1] The Greek poet Hesiod in the 600's BC was already dividing the past up into successive stages of gold, silver, bronze, and so forth, and the Roman poet Ovid in the century before Christ would follow suit. They looked to the earliest age of human history as an ideal time that had only deteriorated with successive periods. [2]
We find this same pattern in Daniel in a dream that the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar has. In his dream, he sees a statue with a head of gold, a chest of silver, a middle and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet of iron mixed with clay (Daniel 1:31-35). The head, Daniel interprets represents the king's own kingdom, that of the Babylonians. However, after the head, interpreters disagree on what empires the rest of the metals represent.
In the traditional view, the silver represents the Medes and the Persians. The bronze represents the Greeks. The iron represents the Romans, with the mixed kingdom that follows being the divided kingdom of the Romans. One might then equate the kingdom that will never be destroyed (2:44) as the church, which rose to become the dominant force in Europe during Rome's divided kingdom. This view of course takes the statue as a prophecy about the future.
Outside evangelical circles, the dominant view is that the book of Daniel is largely a type of literature known as apocalyptic and that most writings in this genre write about the present by having important figures from the past predict events that were actually taking place in the present. In other words, in this view, the statue mostly describes the past until we get to the feet, which were about the author's present. In this view, Daniel was largely written to address a crisis in Israel in the years 167-64BC, the "Maccabean crisis." [3]
The silver would represent the Medes, the bronze the Persians. The iron is thus the Greeks, with the division of the Greek empire between the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria as the iron mixed with clay. God would then set up an everlasting kingdom for Israel at the end of that time. In this view, the unfolding ages of the past are still much like the pattern of Hesiod, only told in a creative way.
Regardless of the conclusion one reaches on Daniel, it is generally agreed that Jewish apocalyptic literature in general worked in this way, and we can make a good argument that linear thinking about history began to gain dominance through it in the centuries just before Christ. The Apocalypse of Weeks, written just after 200BC, divides up history into 10 "weeks" and has Enoch from Genesis 5:24 lay out the whole of history from beginning to end (1 Enoch 93:1-10; 91:11-17). Everyone agrees that most of these weeks were in the past for the author and that he was writing in what he hoped was the beginning of the eighth week. The key is that this anonymous author mapped out three more epochs of human history until it reached finality.
It was during this time, the second century before Christ, that the idea of resurrection firmly rises within Judaism. [4] Apocalyptic literature often was written in relation to times of crisis. Accordingly, when such literature was written, the expectation of the "end of history," the resolution to the evils of the world, was hoped for in the very near future. But after such crises were over, the literature remained and thus also hope that one day in the indefinite future God would indeed set the world straight. A linear view of history was born that saw a trajectory not only for the near future but potentially for the distant future.
So it was arguably in this period that a linear view of history emerged within Judaism. Christianity emerged from Judaism, and Islam later emerged from the matrix of both. The three great monotheistic religions all thus share in common a linear view of history. Because we can trace the origins of the view does not at all mean that it is an incorrect view. We as Christians, for example, simply believe that this is the way in which God brought the idea forward.
The Christian view of history is thus a linear view. It is not only the fundamental view of the New Testament--belief in a future resurrection of the dead and the return of Christ to judge the world. It is also captured well in the fundamental creeds of Christianity. The Apostle's Creed says, "I believe... he [Christ] ascended into heaven... from there he will come to judge the living and the dead... I believe... in the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting."
[1] Many Christians today still have this tendency when they think of the early church as the ideal church and assume that a primary task for Christians is to "get back" to the way things were in the golden age of the disciples.
[2] An exception for Hesiod was what he called the "heroic" age of the Greeks who fought the Trojan War, the Greeks of legend and story.
[3] For example, Daniel 11 reads like a blow by blow account of the Maccabean crisis, but then Daniel 12 skips to the resurrection at the end of history in a very linear sense.
[4] The only passage that everyone agrees refers to resurrection in the Old Testament is Daniel 12:2-3. There are other candidates (e.g., Ps. 73). The bulk of the Old Testament is either silent on the topic or actually denies resurrection (Job 14:14) or a meaningful afterlife (Ecclesiastes 9:2-5).
We find this same pattern in Daniel in a dream that the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar has. In his dream, he sees a statue with a head of gold, a chest of silver, a middle and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet of iron mixed with clay (Daniel 1:31-35). The head, Daniel interprets represents the king's own kingdom, that of the Babylonians. However, after the head, interpreters disagree on what empires the rest of the metals represent.
In the traditional view, the silver represents the Medes and the Persians. The bronze represents the Greeks. The iron represents the Romans, with the mixed kingdom that follows being the divided kingdom of the Romans. One might then equate the kingdom that will never be destroyed (2:44) as the church, which rose to become the dominant force in Europe during Rome's divided kingdom. This view of course takes the statue as a prophecy about the future.
Outside evangelical circles, the dominant view is that the book of Daniel is largely a type of literature known as apocalyptic and that most writings in this genre write about the present by having important figures from the past predict events that were actually taking place in the present. In other words, in this view, the statue mostly describes the past until we get to the feet, which were about the author's present. In this view, Daniel was largely written to address a crisis in Israel in the years 167-64BC, the "Maccabean crisis." [3]
The silver would represent the Medes, the bronze the Persians. The iron is thus the Greeks, with the division of the Greek empire between the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria as the iron mixed with clay. God would then set up an everlasting kingdom for Israel at the end of that time. In this view, the unfolding ages of the past are still much like the pattern of Hesiod, only told in a creative way.
Regardless of the conclusion one reaches on Daniel, it is generally agreed that Jewish apocalyptic literature in general worked in this way, and we can make a good argument that linear thinking about history began to gain dominance through it in the centuries just before Christ. The Apocalypse of Weeks, written just after 200BC, divides up history into 10 "weeks" and has Enoch from Genesis 5:24 lay out the whole of history from beginning to end (1 Enoch 93:1-10; 91:11-17). Everyone agrees that most of these weeks were in the past for the author and that he was writing in what he hoped was the beginning of the eighth week. The key is that this anonymous author mapped out three more epochs of human history until it reached finality.
It was during this time, the second century before Christ, that the idea of resurrection firmly rises within Judaism. [4] Apocalyptic literature often was written in relation to times of crisis. Accordingly, when such literature was written, the expectation of the "end of history," the resolution to the evils of the world, was hoped for in the very near future. But after such crises were over, the literature remained and thus also hope that one day in the indefinite future God would indeed set the world straight. A linear view of history was born that saw a trajectory not only for the near future but potentially for the distant future.
So it was arguably in this period that a linear view of history emerged within Judaism. Christianity emerged from Judaism, and Islam later emerged from the matrix of both. The three great monotheistic religions all thus share in common a linear view of history. Because we can trace the origins of the view does not at all mean that it is an incorrect view. We as Christians, for example, simply believe that this is the way in which God brought the idea forward.
The Christian view of history is thus a linear view. It is not only the fundamental view of the New Testament--belief in a future resurrection of the dead and the return of Christ to judge the world. It is also captured well in the fundamental creeds of Christianity. The Apostle's Creed says, "I believe... he [Christ] ascended into heaven... from there he will come to judge the living and the dead... I believe... in the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting."
[1] Many Christians today still have this tendency when they think of the early church as the ideal church and assume that a primary task for Christians is to "get back" to the way things were in the golden age of the disciples.
[2] An exception for Hesiod was what he called the "heroic" age of the Greeks who fought the Trojan War, the Greeks of legend and story.
[3] For example, Daniel 11 reads like a blow by blow account of the Maccabean crisis, but then Daniel 12 skips to the resurrection at the end of history in a very linear sense.
[4] The only passage that everyone agrees refers to resurrection in the Old Testament is Daniel 12:2-3. There are other candidates (e.g., Ps. 73). The bulk of the Old Testament is either silent on the topic or actually denies resurrection (Job 14:14) or a meaningful afterlife (Ecclesiastes 9:2-5).
Wednesday, September 28, 2011
The Restoration of Israel (2)
Yesterday I summarized the evidence we have on Jewish expectations regarding a messiah. Today we move on to the restoration of Israel.
______
If we only have evidence of some Jews looking for a messianic king, we have more evidence that some Jews were looking for a restored independence from foreign powers. The two are related, of course, since a restored nation of Israel would need leadership, and an anointed king was a good option! But there were options other than a king. For example, throughout the period from Zechariah to Christ, the high priest was the highest political figure in Israel. [3]
And of course Israel did have kings in the century before Christ. Herod the Great was king, for example. In fact, Israel was relatively independent (though not completely) from 164-63BC. When we look at the Jewish literature from the two centuries before Christ, we have to read various comments that look to the restoration of Israel in the light of what was going on at the time.
So the material that appears in the books of 1 Enoch (a book that Jude 14-15 quotes), generally looks to a time when God will remove sinners from Israel and restore it to its former grandeur. The group that started this collection arguably became the Essenes eventually. They looked to the purification of Israel, including the eventual purification of the temple, which they saw as defiled by wicked high priests. We find these themes in the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were arguably produced by Essenes as well.
The Psalms of Solomon, which we mentioned earlier, come from the time after 63BC when the Romans had taken over. These psalms also look to the restoration of Israel, this time involving the removal and destruction of the Romans. The revolutionaries who rose from time to time had this same goal in mind. The sporadic attempts of individuals from time to time would eventually turn into the full blown Jewish War with Rome from AD66-73, in which the Romans destroyed Jerusalem (AD70).
These hopes were no doubt stoked by stories of the Maccabees. In 167BC, a Syrian king defiled the temple and tried to force the Jews not to circumcise or keep the food laws of Leviticus. In revolt, a family that became known as the "maccabees" (the hammers) conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Syrians until, eventually, the Syrians let them continue these biblical practices. The temple was restored and purified in 164BC, and Jews continue to celebrate this victory with Hanukkah today.
At the time of Christ, this story of individuals who were "zealous for the law" (cf. Rom. 10:2) no doubt inspired many who revolted against Roman rule in Israel, as well as many who hoped a day would come when another Judas Maccabeus would rise. Indeed, we can see in this story why some would oppose Jesus and Paul, given their lax attitude toward keeping the finer points of the Jewish Law. We can imagine that the pre-Christian Paul in fact drew some of his intensity from this "conservative" spirit of the age.
So while we cannot say that every Jew of the time was looking for the restoration of Israel, we can say that this expectation did emerge from time to time. In the two centuries before Christ, the fortunes of Israel rose up and down. When it was up, there was probably less thought about some dramatic shift of events yet to come. For those in power, like the Sadducean class sometimes was, there was little need to hope for a messianic movement or change of political leadership. But for certain Jews at certain times, the theme of God restoring Israel might easily re-emerge.
[3] For a short period of time, from 104-63BC, the high priests also held the title of king.
______
If we only have evidence of some Jews looking for a messianic king, we have more evidence that some Jews were looking for a restored independence from foreign powers. The two are related, of course, since a restored nation of Israel would need leadership, and an anointed king was a good option! But there were options other than a king. For example, throughout the period from Zechariah to Christ, the high priest was the highest political figure in Israel. [3]
And of course Israel did have kings in the century before Christ. Herod the Great was king, for example. In fact, Israel was relatively independent (though not completely) from 164-63BC. When we look at the Jewish literature from the two centuries before Christ, we have to read various comments that look to the restoration of Israel in the light of what was going on at the time.
So the material that appears in the books of 1 Enoch (a book that Jude 14-15 quotes), generally looks to a time when God will remove sinners from Israel and restore it to its former grandeur. The group that started this collection arguably became the Essenes eventually. They looked to the purification of Israel, including the eventual purification of the temple, which they saw as defiled by wicked high priests. We find these themes in the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were arguably produced by Essenes as well.
The Psalms of Solomon, which we mentioned earlier, come from the time after 63BC when the Romans had taken over. These psalms also look to the restoration of Israel, this time involving the removal and destruction of the Romans. The revolutionaries who rose from time to time had this same goal in mind. The sporadic attempts of individuals from time to time would eventually turn into the full blown Jewish War with Rome from AD66-73, in which the Romans destroyed Jerusalem (AD70).
These hopes were no doubt stoked by stories of the Maccabees. In 167BC, a Syrian king defiled the temple and tried to force the Jews not to circumcise or keep the food laws of Leviticus. In revolt, a family that became known as the "maccabees" (the hammers) conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Syrians until, eventually, the Syrians let them continue these biblical practices. The temple was restored and purified in 164BC, and Jews continue to celebrate this victory with Hanukkah today.
At the time of Christ, this story of individuals who were "zealous for the law" (cf. Rom. 10:2) no doubt inspired many who revolted against Roman rule in Israel, as well as many who hoped a day would come when another Judas Maccabeus would rise. Indeed, we can see in this story why some would oppose Jesus and Paul, given their lax attitude toward keeping the finer points of the Jewish Law. We can imagine that the pre-Christian Paul in fact drew some of his intensity from this "conservative" spirit of the age.
So while we cannot say that every Jew of the time was looking for the restoration of Israel, we can say that this expectation did emerge from time to time. In the two centuries before Christ, the fortunes of Israel rose up and down. When it was up, there was probably less thought about some dramatic shift of events yet to come. For those in power, like the Sadducean class sometimes was, there was little need to hope for a messianic movement or change of political leadership. But for certain Jews at certain times, the theme of God restoring Israel might easily re-emerge.
[3] For a short period of time, from 104-63BC, the high priests also held the title of king.
Tuesday, September 27, 2011
Looking for a Messiah
Although it's not official, I've got a green light to start work on a couple new books, on Jesus this time (this is not my sabbatical work, but on the side). The first one I've tentatively called The Essential Jesus, although WPH will of course decide the real title if everything progresses. Chapter 1 will be "The Baptism of John," and the first section "Looking for a Messiah." So here it begins.
______________
I suspect that many of us think that the Jews of Jesus' day were all waiting for the messiah, perhaps even that they expected the messiah to be God come to earth. We think this way, no doubt, because we find places in the New Testament where a New Testament author hears the Old Testament fulfilled in the life of Jesus on earth. Our hindsight makes it seem obvious that Jesus was the messiah everyone had been waiting for.
But when we look at the history and what Jews were actually writing in the years prior to Jesus, the situation is more complicated. For example, it is not likely at all that any Jews were expecting God to come earth as a human. In fact, there is only one Jewish text that can be interpreted to mean that a heavenly figure will come to earth as Israel's anointed king (DSS*). And that is just one interpretation of a fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls. [1] The texts that expect a coming "messianic" figure, they instead expect a human king to show up.
And we should also make it clear that the word "messiah" in itself simply means, "anointed one." It does not have to refer to a king. One of the programmatic documents of the Jewish community by the Dead Sea speaks of the "anointed ones" of Aaron and Israel (1QS)--that is, the "messiahs" of Aaron and Israel. This community apparently looked for the coming of both a priestly messiah to restore the true purity of the temple and a royal messiah to return a proper king to Israel.
Most experts believe these documents belonged to a Jewish group known as the Essenes. Many of them, it would seem, expected a messiah to come eventually who would be king of Israel. This would be a human king--an extraordinary man, no doubt, but a completely human one. It is not clear that a writing called the Psalms of Solomon is Essene (it could also be Pharisee), but it looks to a military king to come who will destroy the Romans and restore Israel's kingdom (Ps. of Sol. 17).
However, the Essenes (and the Pharisees) were only a tiny portion of all the Jews in the world. Did the ordinary Jew farming his or her land have such thoughts, the "people of the land"? Certainly there were discontented groups of men who revolted from time to time. We call them revolutionaries but they were sporadic at the time of Jesus, not organized or belonging to some coherent group. They did seem to put forward their leaders as potential king figures--completely human figures.
But the high priests and Sadducees were not looking for a messianic king. They were pretty much in political control anyway, since the Romans ruled through them and their class. Most Jews at the time of Christ did not even live in Jerusalem. At the time, far more Jews lived outside of Jerusalem than inside and around it. These are "Diaspora" or scattered Jews. More Jews lived in a part of the city of Alexandria than lived in all of Jerusalem.
It is not clear at all that these Diaspora Jews were looking for a figure to arise to restore the political independence of Israel. Philo, an educated Jew who lived in Alexandria, has virtually nothing to say about a potential king of this sort. We find only a couple places in his massive writings that might allude to such a king, and we can argue that he only became marginally interested in such things after the emperor Caligula disgraced Israel by trying to set up a statue of himself in the Jerusalem temple.
So, yes, some Jews were hoping that one day God would raise a king up within Israel and that Israel by some means would become free of Roman rule and be independent again. We can imagine that such fervor rose particularly during times of discontent or transition. But those Jews who were looking for a messianic king at those times and in those groups were looking for an extraordinary human king who would restore the political independence of Israel. They were not looking for God to come to earth or for the messiah to be a heavenly being. [2]
[1] The Dead Sea Scrolls were a large collection of scrolls found in some caves at Qumran by the Dead Sea. They date to the century or so before Christ, and most experts think they belonged to an Essene community that was located there.
[2] And, truth be told, the New Testament authors did not read the Old Testament like a Bible teacher would have you read it today. They were not wired to try to read the words inductively, using clues from the literary and historical context to figure out the most likely original meaning of the text. Almost all the passages in which the New Testament authors heard the Spirit speaking about Christ are read in a "spiritual" way. In other words, most of those passages were not originally predictions about Jesus but "fuller senses" found in the words through the eyes of the Spirit.
______________
I suspect that many of us think that the Jews of Jesus' day were all waiting for the messiah, perhaps even that they expected the messiah to be God come to earth. We think this way, no doubt, because we find places in the New Testament where a New Testament author hears the Old Testament fulfilled in the life of Jesus on earth. Our hindsight makes it seem obvious that Jesus was the messiah everyone had been waiting for.
But when we look at the history and what Jews were actually writing in the years prior to Jesus, the situation is more complicated. For example, it is not likely at all that any Jews were expecting God to come earth as a human. In fact, there is only one Jewish text that can be interpreted to mean that a heavenly figure will come to earth as Israel's anointed king (DSS*). And that is just one interpretation of a fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls. [1] The texts that expect a coming "messianic" figure, they instead expect a human king to show up.
And we should also make it clear that the word "messiah" in itself simply means, "anointed one." It does not have to refer to a king. One of the programmatic documents of the Jewish community by the Dead Sea speaks of the "anointed ones" of Aaron and Israel (1QS)--that is, the "messiahs" of Aaron and Israel. This community apparently looked for the coming of both a priestly messiah to restore the true purity of the temple and a royal messiah to return a proper king to Israel.
Most experts believe these documents belonged to a Jewish group known as the Essenes. Many of them, it would seem, expected a messiah to come eventually who would be king of Israel. This would be a human king--an extraordinary man, no doubt, but a completely human one. It is not clear that a writing called the Psalms of Solomon is Essene (it could also be Pharisee), but it looks to a military king to come who will destroy the Romans and restore Israel's kingdom (Ps. of Sol. 17).
However, the Essenes (and the Pharisees) were only a tiny portion of all the Jews in the world. Did the ordinary Jew farming his or her land have such thoughts, the "people of the land"? Certainly there were discontented groups of men who revolted from time to time. We call them revolutionaries but they were sporadic at the time of Jesus, not organized or belonging to some coherent group. They did seem to put forward their leaders as potential king figures--completely human figures.
But the high priests and Sadducees were not looking for a messianic king. They were pretty much in political control anyway, since the Romans ruled through them and their class. Most Jews at the time of Christ did not even live in Jerusalem. At the time, far more Jews lived outside of Jerusalem than inside and around it. These are "Diaspora" or scattered Jews. More Jews lived in a part of the city of Alexandria than lived in all of Jerusalem.
It is not clear at all that these Diaspora Jews were looking for a figure to arise to restore the political independence of Israel. Philo, an educated Jew who lived in Alexandria, has virtually nothing to say about a potential king of this sort. We find only a couple places in his massive writings that might allude to such a king, and we can argue that he only became marginally interested in such things after the emperor Caligula disgraced Israel by trying to set up a statue of himself in the Jerusalem temple.
So, yes, some Jews were hoping that one day God would raise a king up within Israel and that Israel by some means would become free of Roman rule and be independent again. We can imagine that such fervor rose particularly during times of discontent or transition. But those Jews who were looking for a messianic king at those times and in those groups were looking for an extraordinary human king who would restore the political independence of Israel. They were not looking for God to come to earth or for the messiah to be a heavenly being. [2]
[1] The Dead Sea Scrolls were a large collection of scrolls found in some caves at Qumran by the Dead Sea. They date to the century or so before Christ, and most experts think they belonged to an Essene community that was located there.
[2] And, truth be told, the New Testament authors did not read the Old Testament like a Bible teacher would have you read it today. They were not wired to try to read the words inductively, using clues from the literary and historical context to figure out the most likely original meaning of the text. Almost all the passages in which the New Testament authors heard the Spirit speaking about Christ are read in a "spiritual" way. In other words, most of those passages were not originally predictions about Jesus but "fuller senses" found in the words through the eyes of the Spirit.
Wednesday, June 08, 2011
Years of Silence?
I have often found that a lot of the "background to the Bible" stories we tell ourselves are gross oversimplifications, even misrepresentations of things. They're like two dimensional flannel graph pictures. Were the Pharisees all legalistic hypocrites? Was Judaism a religion of works righteousness?
One I came across again yesterday was the idea of "years of silence" between Malachi and Jesus. This seems a particularly Protestant story meant to exclude the Apocrypha from the canon. A book I was reading pinned it to Zechariah 13, where it talks about a time when there will be no prophets. But this is a very ambiguous passage indeed. To connect it to the four hundred year period before Jesus seems very dubious indeed.
Yes, there may have been a sense in the post-exilic period that Israel didn't have prophets like in the "good old days" of Isaiah. But I feel the same way--boy, I wish we had stuff going on like when Jesus and Paul were around. So have we been living in a period of silence since the NT was finished? Certainly a lot of Protestants treat the period from the NT to Martin Luther in exactly the same way.
In the end, the idea of a period of silence probably says more about us than it does the people who lived during this period. We don't know about this period. We may not know that a flurry of writing emerged in the 100s BC, books like 1 Enoch that Jude quotes and some of whose stories may stand in the background of 1 Peter. We may not know of the wealth of prophetic type writing that emerged among the Essenes of the first century BC.
Or in hindsight we dismiss this writing as not truly prophetic. Those groups died out. They are certainly not my group. Evangelicals by and large don't accept the dating of Daniel to the mid-160s BC or the late dating of other OT strands. Frankly, not much literature has survived from the Persian or early Greek period of Israel's history. There is a kind of "silence" of surviving literature from 400-200BC.
We don't see it. We don't know it. The Catholics have books from it. So it's the period of silence. It doesn't fit our scheme of what is important.
But there were high priests carrying out the sacrificial cultus of Leviticus throughout this period. They probably observed the temple festivals more than through the entire period of the Kings. Indeed, everything we read in Judges, Samuel, and Kings pushes us to suspect that the Law as we have it was followed much more in these "years of silence" than throughout the pre-exilic period. It just wasn't filled with ideological sects like those that emerged around the time of the Maccabean crisis of the 160s BC.
Bottom line: Yes, we do not have prophetic material in our Bible from around the years 400BC to AD50, and Protestants do not have much if any material in their canon from this period. But to call these years a period of silence seems about as skewed as saying that God hasn't spoken since the last book of the NT was written.
One I came across again yesterday was the idea of "years of silence" between Malachi and Jesus. This seems a particularly Protestant story meant to exclude the Apocrypha from the canon. A book I was reading pinned it to Zechariah 13, where it talks about a time when there will be no prophets. But this is a very ambiguous passage indeed. To connect it to the four hundred year period before Jesus seems very dubious indeed.
Yes, there may have been a sense in the post-exilic period that Israel didn't have prophets like in the "good old days" of Isaiah. But I feel the same way--boy, I wish we had stuff going on like when Jesus and Paul were around. So have we been living in a period of silence since the NT was finished? Certainly a lot of Protestants treat the period from the NT to Martin Luther in exactly the same way.
In the end, the idea of a period of silence probably says more about us than it does the people who lived during this period. We don't know about this period. We may not know that a flurry of writing emerged in the 100s BC, books like 1 Enoch that Jude quotes and some of whose stories may stand in the background of 1 Peter. We may not know of the wealth of prophetic type writing that emerged among the Essenes of the first century BC.
Or in hindsight we dismiss this writing as not truly prophetic. Those groups died out. They are certainly not my group. Evangelicals by and large don't accept the dating of Daniel to the mid-160s BC or the late dating of other OT strands. Frankly, not much literature has survived from the Persian or early Greek period of Israel's history. There is a kind of "silence" of surviving literature from 400-200BC.
We don't see it. We don't know it. The Catholics have books from it. So it's the period of silence. It doesn't fit our scheme of what is important.
But there were high priests carrying out the sacrificial cultus of Leviticus throughout this period. They probably observed the temple festivals more than through the entire period of the Kings. Indeed, everything we read in Judges, Samuel, and Kings pushes us to suspect that the Law as we have it was followed much more in these "years of silence" than throughout the pre-exilic period. It just wasn't filled with ideological sects like those that emerged around the time of the Maccabean crisis of the 160s BC.
Bottom line: Yes, we do not have prophetic material in our Bible from around the years 400BC to AD50, and Protestants do not have much if any material in their canon from this period. But to call these years a period of silence seems about as skewed as saying that God hasn't spoken since the last book of the NT was written.
Friday, July 16, 2010
Jewish Literature and the Afterlife
They say the last 20% of any project is often 80% of the work. I did a Fulbright in Tuebingen in the Winter of 2004, partially to finish a little book on Philo I wrote and also to continue some research I had done on afterlife traditions in Second Temple Judaism. I gave three lectures in Germany on my research, a couple more when I got back. But alas, I never put it into publishable form.
So here's twenty minutes hoping to add a few hours next week to make a viable proposal to someone (T & T?) before the end of the month because of something else I'm applying for.
Die, shadowy and meaningless afterlife
1. Torah and Former Prophets - shadowy afterlife, similar to the Homeric afterlife, deuteronomistic theology
2. Latter Prophets, Psalms, Wisdom Literature - no meaningful afterlife, no resurrection
3. Tobit, Sirach - no sense of afterlife, Sirach's solution to problem of evil
4. Sadducees
Die with reward or punishment elsewhere
5. Jubilees - spirits will have great joy
6. Philo - reward and punishment at death, some later Greek
7. Pseudo-Phocyclades - same
8. Essenes - reward and punishment after death?
9. later Paul - we must all stand before the judgment seat of Christ (at death?)
10. 4 Maccabees - spiritual afterlife
11. John - I go to prepare a place for you?
12. 1 Peter - made alive in the spirit?
13. Hebrews - spirits of the perfected righteous?
14. Apocalypse of Abraham - reward and punishment at death
Some in future will go somewhere
15. Book of Watchers (22) - some in reward and torment, future moment to settle with those who did not
16. Daniel - some to life, some to contempt, shine like stars
17. Epistle of Enoch - spirits in heaven
18. Some Pharisees may have believed in a kind of spirit resurrection
19. 4 Ezra = at point in future, righteous and wicked get theirs
Return to the earth in future
20. Animal Apocalypse - maybe physical resurrection?
21. LXX of Job - physical resurrection
22. 2 Maccabees - partial bodily resurrection of righteous martyred
23. Pharisees - resurrection of more than one sort perhaps
24. Book of Wisdom - spirits but with resurrection to the earth
25. early Paul - bodily resurrection of dead in Christ
26. Luke - spirits but with resurrection to the earth
27. Revelation - two resurrections to earth
28. Mishnah - all Israel have place in life to come
So here's twenty minutes hoping to add a few hours next week to make a viable proposal to someone (T & T?) before the end of the month because of something else I'm applying for.
Die, shadowy and meaningless afterlife
1. Torah and Former Prophets - shadowy afterlife, similar to the Homeric afterlife, deuteronomistic theology
2. Latter Prophets, Psalms, Wisdom Literature - no meaningful afterlife, no resurrection
3. Tobit, Sirach - no sense of afterlife, Sirach's solution to problem of evil
4. Sadducees
Die with reward or punishment elsewhere
5. Jubilees - spirits will have great joy
6. Philo - reward and punishment at death, some later Greek
7. Pseudo-Phocyclades - same
8. Essenes - reward and punishment after death?
9. later Paul - we must all stand before the judgment seat of Christ (at death?)
10. 4 Maccabees - spiritual afterlife
11. John - I go to prepare a place for you?
12. 1 Peter - made alive in the spirit?
13. Hebrews - spirits of the perfected righteous?
14. Apocalypse of Abraham - reward and punishment at death
Some in future will go somewhere
15. Book of Watchers (22) - some in reward and torment, future moment to settle with those who did not
16. Daniel - some to life, some to contempt, shine like stars
17. Epistle of Enoch - spirits in heaven
18. Some Pharisees may have believed in a kind of spirit resurrection
19. 4 Ezra = at point in future, righteous and wicked get theirs
Return to the earth in future
20. Animal Apocalypse - maybe physical resurrection?
21. LXX of Job - physical resurrection
22. 2 Maccabees - partial bodily resurrection of righteous martyred
23. Pharisees - resurrection of more than one sort perhaps
24. Book of Wisdom - spirits but with resurrection to the earth
25. early Paul - bodily resurrection of dead in Christ
26. Luke - spirits but with resurrection to the earth
27. Revelation - two resurrections to earth
28. Mishnah - all Israel have place in life to come
Wednesday, December 02, 2009
New Testament Intersections: Late Apocalyptic
Some previous posts in this series:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Early Enochic Literature
The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament
Here is a litany of later Jewish apocalyptic literature, which may or may not be Essene. I throw in the Wisdom of Solomon and Joseph and Aseneth.
___________
Psalms of Solomon (1st century BC)
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Early Enochic Literature
The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament
Here is a litany of later Jewish apocalyptic literature, which may or may not be Essene. I throw in the Wisdom of Solomon and Joseph and Aseneth.
___________
Psalms of Solomon (1st century BC)
- Possibly Essene, although could be Pharisaic
- Gentiles straightforwardly = sinners (cf. Gal. 2:15)
- Classic text on the expectation of a military messiah (chap. 17 esp.)
- First Jewish writing explicitly to equate the serpent in the Garden of Eden with Satan (Genesis does not)
- Satan is commanded to worship Adam as the image of God (evidence that okay to give royal representatives of God derivative worship)
- Righteous person is a son of God (2:16-18; 5:5), and the righteous are “saints” (5:5).
- Death entered the world by the Devil’s envy (2:23).
- seems to affirm resurrection (cf. 3:7-8; 16:13)
- Romans 1's sense that the truth of God's nature should be known but that humanity has instead turned to idols is very reminiscent of Wisdom 12:19; 13:1; 14:12.
- Hebrews 1:3 seems to allude to Wisdom 7:26.
- Hebrews 4:12-13 describes God's word much as Wis. 18:15-16 does.
- Righteous will receive a crown (Wis. 5:16; compare 2 Tim. 4).
- Spirit of God holds everything together (Wis. 1:7; compare Col. 1:17)
- armor of God (5:17-21)
- Gives example of conversion to Judaism--Aseneth becoming a virgin again involves putting a hair veil back on, possible background to 1 Corinthians 11
- Crucial text for background to some heavenly "Son of Man" passages in the gospels. Very similar to Matthew 25.
- Dating of the Parables has impact on whether Jesus might have had these texts in mind in his use of the phrase (Schenck dates it to early first century AD where it stands more as potential background to Matthew than to Jesus' use of the phrase).
- Crucial text in understanding the worship of Jesus as God's king on the throne of heaven (along with Ezekiel the Tragedian and Life of Adam and Eve).
- Sees the Son of Man as existing in heaven long before coming on the clouds in judgment (pre-existent).
4 Ezra (ca. AD100)
- Calls Rome Babylon, as in Revelation and 1 Peter.
- Adamic “fall” (e.g. 3:21; 4:30; 7:11)
- All have sinned (7:46,68)
- Messiah coming (13:32-36) and pre-existent
2 Baruch (ca. AD100)
- Sense of a fall of Adam
- Heavenly temple shown to Adam and Moses on Sinai
- looks to messiah and resurrection
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
- Testament Genre--Richard Bauckham (e.g.) sees 2 Peter in this category.
- Testament of Levi has three heavens, with evil angels in the lowest, God in the highest, and angels in the highest offering bloodless sacrifices. Helpful picture of one Jewish cosmology at the time: 1) Satan as prince of the air, Jesus' exorcist ministry as a "Normandy invasion" of a world under evil powers, kicking out of the church as a delivering over to Satan as power of this world (1 Cor. 5), the world and flesh under the power of Sin; 2) Paul being taken up into the third heaven; 3) possible insights in relation to Hebrews with angelic "temple" service in the highest heaven (cf. Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice).
Testament of Job
- Satan the prince of evil (i.e., not a servant of God as in Job itself)
- Job's daughters speak in tongues--could be evidence for non-Christian Jewish speaking in tongues, although some think this is a Montanist redaction of an original Jewish document.
- If it also was known as the Assumption of Moses, may have contained the curious story in Jude of Michael arguing with Satan over the body of Moses.
- Third oracle involves an indictment of homosexual sex and seems to consider an Egyptian king as a messianic figure.
- Fifth oracle has tradition that Nero would return from the East to retake over the Roman empire. Possible background to Revelation 17--the eighth is one of the five who was, is not, and yet will be, with a mortal wound.
- Angel of God is Iaoel (name like to that of God himself)
- “without mother, without father, ungenerated” (17:10); reminiscent of Hebrews 7:3
- apparently disembodied afterlife rather than resurrection per se.
Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah
- 7 layers of heaven
- tradition that Isaiah was sawed in half (Hebrews 11)
- possible worship of an exalted angel
Monday, November 16, 2009
The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament
For previous posts in this series, see here. In this post, I want to boil down and organize what I think are the biggest take-aways from the Dead Sea Scrolls as background to the New Testament. Certainly many have done this sort of thing before, but that's never stopped me before.
_________
Jesus and John the Baptist
1. The Community Rule is striking in its use of Isaiah 40:3--"Prepare in the wilderness the way of the Lord" (e.g., 1QS 8). It then refers to its membership as individuals who have chosen the Way (e.g., 1QS 9; CD 2). The similarity to the way John the Baptist is introduced in the gospels, along with the fact that Acts indicates early Christians saw themselves as followers of the Way is very striking indeed. Apollos, for example, is said to understand the Way of the Lord when Priscilla and Aquila come on him (Acts 18:25), yet only to know the teaching of John the Baptist!
It is very hard for me to read these observations and not conclude that John the Baptist was an Essene and that Essenism stands as the principal background for Jesus' ministry. Luke presents him as someone of priestly descent, which fits the Essenes. He does not seem to be married (although frankly we don't know for sure) and his life as a Nazirite fits as well.
That is not to say, of course, that Jesus was an Essene, quite the contrary. He apparently assented to the call to repentance that was a signature of John the Baptist's message, but his practice of inclusion showed a disregard for boundaries and purity rules that would not only have been massively unacceptable to the Essenes. The gospels depict it as unacceptable to the less "conservative" Pharisees.
2. Messianic expectation is not a regular feature of the books commonly called the Apocrypha. It is, however, noticeable in the scrolls. It may first appear in the Animal Apocalypse around 160BC in terms of literature that has survived. We also find it in the Psalms of Solomon around 50BC. The messiah will be king of the restored Israel. We do not find any good indication that this messiah was thought to be a heavenly figure in the scrolls. His arrival is accompanied in 11QMelch by the archangel Melchizedek who will judge angels and men.
We do know of a few revolutionaries who tried to revolt against Rome. There was Judas the Galilean in AD6. There was Theudas in the early 40s. We know of an anonymous Egyptian from Acts. Simon bar Kochba was thought the messiah in the later 135 revolt. It is hard to know, therefore, how widespread messianic belief was.
3. Dead Sea Scrolls like 4QFlorilegium look to several messianic texts that also appear in the New Testament: Psalm 2; 2 Samuel 7:14; Amos 9:11. It is impossible to know if Jesus used these sorts of texts in reference to messianic expectation during his earthly ministry. But they certainly found their way eventually into the self-understanding of the early church.
4. 11QMelch speaks of Melchizedek bringing good news to captives from Isaiah 61, just as Luke 4 has Jesus say as he commences his ministry. It also quotes Isaiah 52:7 from which arguably come the word "gospel" and the phrase "kingdom of God." It is quite possible that Jesus evoked the image of God's coming salvation using commonly known imagery (drawn from Essene circles?).
5. Language of a new covenant was clearly in play among the Essenes and the Dead Sea Community. It is difficult to know for sure to what extent Jeremiah 31 might have served as a backdrop for Jesus' earthly ministry, but clearly at some point the earliest Christians understood Jesus' death to be the real inauguration of one.
6. The War Scroll looks to a final battle between good and evil, just as Jesus may also have anticipated in the way he framed his mission on earth. The idea that the Dead Sea community was the final generation such as we find in the Habakkuk commentary also seems to have become the understanding of the earliest Christians.
7. Hell fire as a place not only for the Devil and his angels but for the wicked of Israel seems to stand in the background of Jesus' ministry or at the very least early Christian understanding and such imagery is found also to some extent among the scrolls.
Earliest Christians
8. communal living, holding possessions in common
The Community Rule also records a process of a person's property becoming absorbed into the community. Acts 2 also speaks of the early Jerusalem Christian community holding their possessions in common. This would fit a community with strong Essene sympathies. The incident with Ananias and Sapphira reminds us of the penalties for lying about property that pertained to the Qumran community.
9. The literature of 1 Enoch arguably stands in the background of the Dead Sea Scrolls and may in fact have served as Scripture for the Essenes. In this connection, it is noteworthy that Jude 14-15 quote 1 Enoch 1. Similarly, the story of evil angels having sex with human women seems presumed by Jude 6; 2 Peter 2:4; and 1 Peter 3:19-20. By contrast, Paul the ex-Pharisee does not engage any of this Enochic literature. We could argue, however, that some significant Jerusalem Christians did and may even have considered 1 Enoch to be Scripture.
10. Paul goes to Damascus to arrest some Christian Jews. This is peculiar because Damascus was not under the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin. There must surely have been a significant Christian element there of some kind. Similarly, Damascus plays an important at least putative role for the Essenes. The Covenant of Damascus remembers Damascus in one way or another as the place where the fundamental Essene covenant was first made.
11. New Testament interpretation in general fit with the hermeneutics of the day. For example, some of Matthew's interpretations are reminiscent of the pesher commentaries at Qumran in the way they lift segments of words from the Old Testament from their original contexts and apply them to incidents in the life of Jesus.
12. The DSS repeatedly invoke the Holy Spirit as God's presence in the community. Romans 1:3 may repeat an early Christian "creed" of sort using the phrase, "Spirit of holiness," which of course is attested at Qumran.
Paul's Letters
13. 4QMMT remains excellent background to Paul's use of the phrase "works of law." This phrase apparently evoked images of the kinds of debates Jews had over boundary issues and how to keep the purity issues of the Law. The strongly ethnic overtones of the phrase are clear enough in Galatians, where circumcision is primarily at issue.
If much of the early Jerusalem church was Essene, then we can see Paul's use of Qumran categories in part as effective rhetoric. Paul becomes an ex-Pharisee believer arguing with ex-Essene believers or even still Essene believers. The use of the phrase "doers of the Law" (versus mere "hearers of the Law") in Romans 2 and indeed in James becomes intriguing because Paul possibly throws an Essene mantra back in his opponents face.
14. Paul's language of election and his evocation of mystery to explain God's predestination of the Gentiles ironically finds strong precedent in the Qumran hymns and War Scroll. It is ironic because Paul turns language that had been used in relation to a very separatist, conservative Jewish community and applies it to the inclusion of the Gentiles!
15. Although the DSS are not the only background for the phrase the righteousness of God, they support the strong evidence from the Psalms and Isaiah that Paul's use of this phrase primarily referred to God's righteousness, His propensity to save and show mercy on His people. See the Community Rule and the Hymns.
16. The Qumran hymns, while ironically having a strong expectation of moral perfection, also have a strong sense of human depravity. No one can be righteous in their own strength. Justification is by God's grace. Although some will no doubt quibble that the emphasis on holiness cancels out the insight about human depravity, the New Testament also expects a life above sin.
In that sense the Qumran hymns well dispense with the older view of Judaism as a religion of works righteousness. The NT like the scrolls have a pattern of keeping the Law in response to God's grace and works as an element in the equation of final acceptance while strongly affirming human unworthiness. Paul's evocation of such themes are not so much in disagreement over them but he uses them to lead his opponents to different implications for them.
17. Paul's use of flesh as that part of a human that is susceptible to sin, as well as the sense that humans have a guilty inclination are attested at Qumran. Such ideas probably fit better with an Essene background than with Paul's own Pharisaic background perhaps.
18. Paul's sense of the glory of Adam may be invoked in the scrolls. It is this glory that Paul believed we lacked because of our sin and it was hope of this glory that we aspired to through Christ.
19. Paul's early use of the phrase sons of light in 1 Thessalonians is possibly an artifact of early Christian language he has retained which, again, fits very well against an Essene background for many early Christians.
20. Paul's references to meetings of early believers as "churches," "assemblies," fits very well with Essene origins for earliest Christianity.
21. The one artifact in 2 Corinthians where the word Belial is used of Satan reminds us of the name primarily used of him among the scrolls.
22. The Songs of the Sabbath sacrifice may very well provide us with important background to understand an incipient mystical Judaism that Colossians addresses where certain Jews saw their worship as a participation in the worship of angels. The use of tongues in worship may intersect here at some point as well.
Hebrews
23. The idea that God's throne room was a heavenly Holy of Holies in a heavenly temple is certainly attested at Qumran.
24. The importance of santification of the community understood as purification is certainly attested at Qumran.
25. The Qumran sense of Melchizedek as a heavenly archangel may stand somewhere in the background of Hebrews 7, although if so, probably more in terms of the author using some associations on the part of the audience rather than his own. Hebrews does not equate Jesus with Melchizedek.
Revelation
26. Once again, the idea of a final battle between Israel and the world, with the primary bad guy or image of the primary bad guy based on Rome, stands as an essential part of Revelation and is strongly evoked by the War Scroll.
_________
Jesus and John the Baptist
1. The Community Rule is striking in its use of Isaiah 40:3--"Prepare in the wilderness the way of the Lord" (e.g., 1QS 8). It then refers to its membership as individuals who have chosen the Way (e.g., 1QS 9; CD 2). The similarity to the way John the Baptist is introduced in the gospels, along with the fact that Acts indicates early Christians saw themselves as followers of the Way is very striking indeed. Apollos, for example, is said to understand the Way of the Lord when Priscilla and Aquila come on him (Acts 18:25), yet only to know the teaching of John the Baptist!
It is very hard for me to read these observations and not conclude that John the Baptist was an Essene and that Essenism stands as the principal background for Jesus' ministry. Luke presents him as someone of priestly descent, which fits the Essenes. He does not seem to be married (although frankly we don't know for sure) and his life as a Nazirite fits as well.
That is not to say, of course, that Jesus was an Essene, quite the contrary. He apparently assented to the call to repentance that was a signature of John the Baptist's message, but his practice of inclusion showed a disregard for boundaries and purity rules that would not only have been massively unacceptable to the Essenes. The gospels depict it as unacceptable to the less "conservative" Pharisees.
2. Messianic expectation is not a regular feature of the books commonly called the Apocrypha. It is, however, noticeable in the scrolls. It may first appear in the Animal Apocalypse around 160BC in terms of literature that has survived. We also find it in the Psalms of Solomon around 50BC. The messiah will be king of the restored Israel. We do not find any good indication that this messiah was thought to be a heavenly figure in the scrolls. His arrival is accompanied in 11QMelch by the archangel Melchizedek who will judge angels and men.
We do know of a few revolutionaries who tried to revolt against Rome. There was Judas the Galilean in AD6. There was Theudas in the early 40s. We know of an anonymous Egyptian from Acts. Simon bar Kochba was thought the messiah in the later 135 revolt. It is hard to know, therefore, how widespread messianic belief was.
3. Dead Sea Scrolls like 4QFlorilegium look to several messianic texts that also appear in the New Testament: Psalm 2; 2 Samuel 7:14; Amos 9:11. It is impossible to know if Jesus used these sorts of texts in reference to messianic expectation during his earthly ministry. But they certainly found their way eventually into the self-understanding of the early church.
4. 11QMelch speaks of Melchizedek bringing good news to captives from Isaiah 61, just as Luke 4 has Jesus say as he commences his ministry. It also quotes Isaiah 52:7 from which arguably come the word "gospel" and the phrase "kingdom of God." It is quite possible that Jesus evoked the image of God's coming salvation using commonly known imagery (drawn from Essene circles?).
5. Language of a new covenant was clearly in play among the Essenes and the Dead Sea Community. It is difficult to know for sure to what extent Jeremiah 31 might have served as a backdrop for Jesus' earthly ministry, but clearly at some point the earliest Christians understood Jesus' death to be the real inauguration of one.
6. The War Scroll looks to a final battle between good and evil, just as Jesus may also have anticipated in the way he framed his mission on earth. The idea that the Dead Sea community was the final generation such as we find in the Habakkuk commentary also seems to have become the understanding of the earliest Christians.
7. Hell fire as a place not only for the Devil and his angels but for the wicked of Israel seems to stand in the background of Jesus' ministry or at the very least early Christian understanding and such imagery is found also to some extent among the scrolls.
Earliest Christians
8. communal living, holding possessions in common
The Community Rule also records a process of a person's property becoming absorbed into the community. Acts 2 also speaks of the early Jerusalem Christian community holding their possessions in common. This would fit a community with strong Essene sympathies. The incident with Ananias and Sapphira reminds us of the penalties for lying about property that pertained to the Qumran community.
9. The literature of 1 Enoch arguably stands in the background of the Dead Sea Scrolls and may in fact have served as Scripture for the Essenes. In this connection, it is noteworthy that Jude 14-15 quote 1 Enoch 1. Similarly, the story of evil angels having sex with human women seems presumed by Jude 6; 2 Peter 2:4; and 1 Peter 3:19-20. By contrast, Paul the ex-Pharisee does not engage any of this Enochic literature. We could argue, however, that some significant Jerusalem Christians did and may even have considered 1 Enoch to be Scripture.
10. Paul goes to Damascus to arrest some Christian Jews. This is peculiar because Damascus was not under the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin. There must surely have been a significant Christian element there of some kind. Similarly, Damascus plays an important at least putative role for the Essenes. The Covenant of Damascus remembers Damascus in one way or another as the place where the fundamental Essene covenant was first made.
11. New Testament interpretation in general fit with the hermeneutics of the day. For example, some of Matthew's interpretations are reminiscent of the pesher commentaries at Qumran in the way they lift segments of words from the Old Testament from their original contexts and apply them to incidents in the life of Jesus.
12. The DSS repeatedly invoke the Holy Spirit as God's presence in the community. Romans 1:3 may repeat an early Christian "creed" of sort using the phrase, "Spirit of holiness," which of course is attested at Qumran.
Paul's Letters
13. 4QMMT remains excellent background to Paul's use of the phrase "works of law." This phrase apparently evoked images of the kinds of debates Jews had over boundary issues and how to keep the purity issues of the Law. The strongly ethnic overtones of the phrase are clear enough in Galatians, where circumcision is primarily at issue.
If much of the early Jerusalem church was Essene, then we can see Paul's use of Qumran categories in part as effective rhetoric. Paul becomes an ex-Pharisee believer arguing with ex-Essene believers or even still Essene believers. The use of the phrase "doers of the Law" (versus mere "hearers of the Law") in Romans 2 and indeed in James becomes intriguing because Paul possibly throws an Essene mantra back in his opponents face.
14. Paul's language of election and his evocation of mystery to explain God's predestination of the Gentiles ironically finds strong precedent in the Qumran hymns and War Scroll. It is ironic because Paul turns language that had been used in relation to a very separatist, conservative Jewish community and applies it to the inclusion of the Gentiles!
15. Although the DSS are not the only background for the phrase the righteousness of God, they support the strong evidence from the Psalms and Isaiah that Paul's use of this phrase primarily referred to God's righteousness, His propensity to save and show mercy on His people. See the Community Rule and the Hymns.
16. The Qumran hymns, while ironically having a strong expectation of moral perfection, also have a strong sense of human depravity. No one can be righteous in their own strength. Justification is by God's grace. Although some will no doubt quibble that the emphasis on holiness cancels out the insight about human depravity, the New Testament also expects a life above sin.
In that sense the Qumran hymns well dispense with the older view of Judaism as a religion of works righteousness. The NT like the scrolls have a pattern of keeping the Law in response to God's grace and works as an element in the equation of final acceptance while strongly affirming human unworthiness. Paul's evocation of such themes are not so much in disagreement over them but he uses them to lead his opponents to different implications for them.
17. Paul's use of flesh as that part of a human that is susceptible to sin, as well as the sense that humans have a guilty inclination are attested at Qumran. Such ideas probably fit better with an Essene background than with Paul's own Pharisaic background perhaps.
18. Paul's sense of the glory of Adam may be invoked in the scrolls. It is this glory that Paul believed we lacked because of our sin and it was hope of this glory that we aspired to through Christ.
19. Paul's early use of the phrase sons of light in 1 Thessalonians is possibly an artifact of early Christian language he has retained which, again, fits very well against an Essene background for many early Christians.
20. Paul's references to meetings of early believers as "churches," "assemblies," fits very well with Essene origins for earliest Christianity.
21. The one artifact in 2 Corinthians where the word Belial is used of Satan reminds us of the name primarily used of him among the scrolls.
22. The Songs of the Sabbath sacrifice may very well provide us with important background to understand an incipient mystical Judaism that Colossians addresses where certain Jews saw their worship as a participation in the worship of angels. The use of tongues in worship may intersect here at some point as well.
Hebrews
23. The idea that God's throne room was a heavenly Holy of Holies in a heavenly temple is certainly attested at Qumran.
24. The importance of santification of the community understood as purification is certainly attested at Qumran.
25. The Qumran sense of Melchizedek as a heavenly archangel may stand somewhere in the background of Hebrews 7, although if so, probably more in terms of the author using some associations on the part of the audience rather than his own. Hebrews does not equate Jesus with Melchizedek.
Revelation
26. Once again, the idea of a final battle between Israel and the world, with the primary bad guy or image of the primary bad guy based on Rome, stands as an essential part of Revelation and is strongly evoked by the War Scroll.
Friday, November 13, 2009
New Testament Intersections 8: Final DSS
Previous posts in this series include:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Pesher Commentaries
Songs of Sabbath, 4QTest, 4QFlor, Son of God frag, etc...
And now the remaining Dead Sea Scrolls I am covering.
11QMelchizedek
General Elements
1. Generally known for equating Melchizedek with Michael the archangel, although nothing in the text actually says this. It does seem to make a distinction between the messiah and Melchizedek, otherwise we might suppose that "mlchzdk" should be interpreted as "king of righteousness" in relation to the messiah.
2. Melchizedek is called ELOHIM and EL, "god," which is the basis for seeing him as an archangel here. He brings judgment on Belial and other spirits (=angels) who rebelled, which supports the angelic theory.
3. Atonement seems associated in some way with Melchizedek, which again supports an association with Genesis 15. At the same time, we should remember that more than one scroll sees the messiah as a priest-messiah.
New Testament Intersections
1. Paul seems to understand Christ to lead the (good) angels in judgment of the world and (fallen) angels (e.g., 1 Cor. 6:2-3; 1 Thess. 4:16), which fits with the role of Melchizedek.
2. A couple NT texts are used here. Isaiah 61, used of Jesus in Luke 4, is used of Melchizedek. The programmatic verse of Jesus ministry, Isaiah 52:7 "how beautiful are the feet of those who bring the gospel, our God reigns [kingdom of God]" is evoked in relation to the messiah and Melchizedek, assuming the two are different.
3. There has been much speculation about a possible connection between 11QMelch and Hebrews 7. It may very well be that such Melchizedek traditions stand somewhere broadly in the background of Hebrews argument. However, Hebrews 7 does not equate Jesus with Melchizedek and virtually all of its argument can be explained as a "what is not in the Torah does not exist" argument (non in thora non in mundo).
The Book of War (4Q285)
I only mention this set of fragments because some have claimed that it foretells a murdered messiah. This, however, does not seem to be the case and is based upon extensively hypothetical reconstructions.
Messianic Rule (1QSa)
1. Gives the community's picture of the messianic community in the age to come. Pictures a single priest-messiah (2).
2. the assembly, again (2)
3. again, importance of purity "because the angels of holiness are with their congregation" (2)... remember Fitzmeyer's interpretation of 1 Corinthians 11 again (that I don't agree with)
War Scroll (1QM)
This is an extensive picture of the final eschatological battle. The matter of formation and weaponry bespeaks the Romans as the Kittim and chief enemy.
New Testament Intersections
1. Belial again (1...)
2. sons of light again (1), sons of darkness (3)
3. assembly again (2...)
4. mysteries again (3, 14)
5. sinful flesh* (4) Most of the references to flesh elsewhere have had more to do with weakness than sinfulness
6. righteousness of God again (4)
7. right hand of God (cf. Ps. 110:1; 4)
8. elect of God again (4, 12)
9. twelve tribes of Israel (5), reminder that Jesus chose 12 disciples
10. wrath of God (6)
11. importance of perfection of body, no nakedness, because angels with them in battle (cf. Fitzmeyer on 1 Cor. 11)
12. ranks of angels like 1 Enoch (9)
13. God's lovingkindness not in accordance with our works (11).
14. the messiah, with reference to Numbers 24 (11)
15. the sanctified (11)
16. Belial created for the Pit (13), sounds like predestination, sounds like "created for the Devil and his angels" in Matthew, eternal blaze for sinners (14)
17. poor in spirit (14)
18. In general, the final battle of the War Scroll reminds us of the final battle pictured in the final chapters of Revelation, including the fact that the final opponent is Rome or pictured in terms of Rome.
Copper Scroll (3Q15)
Of no real relevance to the New Testament but very interesting. Post-dates Qumran (ca. AD100), claims to tell where a mess of gold, silver, and massive wealth in general is stashed around Jerusalem. Some think it's all made up. Some think the wealth of the Essenes or of the temple. But no one has found any of it!
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Pesher Commentaries
Songs of Sabbath, 4QTest, 4QFlor, Son of God frag, etc...
And now the remaining Dead Sea Scrolls I am covering.
11QMelchizedek
General Elements
1. Generally known for equating Melchizedek with Michael the archangel, although nothing in the text actually says this. It does seem to make a distinction between the messiah and Melchizedek, otherwise we might suppose that "mlchzdk" should be interpreted as "king of righteousness" in relation to the messiah.
2. Melchizedek is called ELOHIM and EL, "god," which is the basis for seeing him as an archangel here. He brings judgment on Belial and other spirits (=angels) who rebelled, which supports the angelic theory.
3. Atonement seems associated in some way with Melchizedek, which again supports an association with Genesis 15. At the same time, we should remember that more than one scroll sees the messiah as a priest-messiah.
New Testament Intersections
1. Paul seems to understand Christ to lead the (good) angels in judgment of the world and (fallen) angels (e.g., 1 Cor. 6:2-3; 1 Thess. 4:16), which fits with the role of Melchizedek.
2. A couple NT texts are used here. Isaiah 61, used of Jesus in Luke 4, is used of Melchizedek. The programmatic verse of Jesus ministry, Isaiah 52:7 "how beautiful are the feet of those who bring the gospel, our God reigns [kingdom of God]" is evoked in relation to the messiah and Melchizedek, assuming the two are different.
3. There has been much speculation about a possible connection between 11QMelch and Hebrews 7. It may very well be that such Melchizedek traditions stand somewhere broadly in the background of Hebrews argument. However, Hebrews 7 does not equate Jesus with Melchizedek and virtually all of its argument can be explained as a "what is not in the Torah does not exist" argument (non in thora non in mundo).
The Book of War (4Q285)
I only mention this set of fragments because some have claimed that it foretells a murdered messiah. This, however, does not seem to be the case and is based upon extensively hypothetical reconstructions.
Messianic Rule (1QSa)
1. Gives the community's picture of the messianic community in the age to come. Pictures a single priest-messiah (2).
2. the assembly, again (2)
3. again, importance of purity "because the angels of holiness are with their congregation" (2)... remember Fitzmeyer's interpretation of 1 Corinthians 11 again (that I don't agree with)
War Scroll (1QM)
This is an extensive picture of the final eschatological battle. The matter of formation and weaponry bespeaks the Romans as the Kittim and chief enemy.
New Testament Intersections
1. Belial again (1...)
2. sons of light again (1), sons of darkness (3)
3. assembly again (2...)
4. mysteries again (3, 14)
5. sinful flesh* (4) Most of the references to flesh elsewhere have had more to do with weakness than sinfulness
6. righteousness of God again (4)
7. right hand of God (cf. Ps. 110:1; 4)
8. elect of God again (4, 12)
9. twelve tribes of Israel (5), reminder that Jesus chose 12 disciples
10. wrath of God (6)
11. importance of perfection of body, no nakedness, because angels with them in battle (cf. Fitzmeyer on 1 Cor. 11)
12. ranks of angels like 1 Enoch (9)
13. God's lovingkindness not in accordance with our works (11).
14. the messiah, with reference to Numbers 24 (11)
15. the sanctified (11)
16. Belial created for the Pit (13), sounds like predestination, sounds like "created for the Devil and his angels" in Matthew, eternal blaze for sinners (14)
17. poor in spirit (14)
18. In general, the final battle of the War Scroll reminds us of the final battle pictured in the final chapters of Revelation, including the fact that the final opponent is Rome or pictured in terms of Rome.
Copper Scroll (3Q15)
Of no real relevance to the New Testament but very interesting. Post-dates Qumran (ca. AD100), claims to tell where a mess of gold, silver, and massive wealth in general is stashed around Jerusalem. Some think it's all made up. Some think the wealth of the Essenes or of the temple. But no one has found any of it!
New Testament Intersections 7: Miscellaneous DSS
Previous posts in this series include:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Pesher Commentaries
Maybe second to last post in run through the Dead sea Scrolls. I hope on Monday to summarize what I think the rather impressive take-away from this run through the Dead Sea Scrolls might be.
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (4QShirShab)
Elements
1. About heavenly worship but is coordinated with the offering of earthly sacrifices
2. Heavenly temple, including Holy of Holies
3. ministers of God’s presence make expiations (cf. TLevi 3)
4. called “elohim”—”gods” (e.g., 4Q403)
5. anticipates Merkabah mysticism (esp. 4Q405)
New Testament Intersections
1. Colossians 2:18— "worship of angels” might mean not worshipping angels but mystical participation with the angels in their worship
2. Hebrews 1—It has been suggested that behind Hebrews repeated contrasts of Christ with angels might be an over-preoccupation of the audience with angels.
3. Hebrews 9-10-- the idea that God dwells in the Most Holy Place of heaven
4. mysteries again (4Q403)
Words of the Heavenly Lights (4Q504)
You sent your Holy Spirit on us (5)
4QTestimonia
Messianic expectation using Deut. 18 and Num. 24)
4QFlorilegium
1. Collection of texts generally connected to the Messiah, including 2 Samuel 7:14, Amos 9:11, and Psalm 2.
2. These three texts are all used in the New Testament (Acts and Hebrews) in relation to Jesus.
3. Might (although perhaps not) support collections of sayings such as Q is alleged to be and the Gospel of Thomas was. More accurately a set of related verses with pesher interpretation.
4. "works of the Law" related to the functioning of the sanctuary.
5. Belial, sons of light cont...
Son of God fragment (4Q246)
Predicts a “Son of God,” a “Son of the Most High” like Luke 1:32, 35
A Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521)
1. May not be sectarian
2. Speaks of reviving and raising the dead
3. Quotes Isaiah 61:1 as Luke 4
Pseudo-Ezekiel (4Q385)
1. not obviously sectarian
2. literal resurrection?
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Pesher Commentaries
Maybe second to last post in run through the Dead sea Scrolls. I hope on Monday to summarize what I think the rather impressive take-away from this run through the Dead Sea Scrolls might be.
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (4QShirShab)
Elements
1. About heavenly worship but is coordinated with the offering of earthly sacrifices
2. Heavenly temple, including Holy of Holies
3. ministers of God’s presence make expiations (cf. TLevi 3)
4. called “elohim”—”gods” (e.g., 4Q403)
5. anticipates Merkabah mysticism (esp. 4Q405)
New Testament Intersections
1. Colossians 2:18— "worship of angels” might mean not worshipping angels but mystical participation with the angels in their worship
2. Hebrews 1—It has been suggested that behind Hebrews repeated contrasts of Christ with angels might be an over-preoccupation of the audience with angels.
3. Hebrews 9-10-- the idea that God dwells in the Most Holy Place of heaven
4. mysteries again (4Q403)
Words of the Heavenly Lights (4Q504)
You sent your Holy Spirit on us (5)
4QTestimonia
Messianic expectation using Deut. 18 and Num. 24)
4QFlorilegium
1. Collection of texts generally connected to the Messiah, including 2 Samuel 7:14, Amos 9:11, and Psalm 2.
2. These three texts are all used in the New Testament (Acts and Hebrews) in relation to Jesus.
3. Might (although perhaps not) support collections of sayings such as Q is alleged to be and the Gospel of Thomas was. More accurately a set of related verses with pesher interpretation.
4. "works of the Law" related to the functioning of the sanctuary.
5. Belial, sons of light cont...
Son of God fragment (4Q246)
Predicts a “Son of God,” a “Son of the Most High” like Luke 1:32, 35
A Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521)
1. May not be sectarian
2. Speaks of reviving and raising the dead
3. Quotes Isaiah 61:1 as Luke 4
Pseudo-Ezekiel (4Q385)
1. not obviously sectarian
2. literal resurrection?
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
New Testament Intersections 6: Pesher Commentaries
Previous posts in this series include:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
The next installment of our run through intertestamental literature for its possible intersections with the New Testament leads us to the Habakkuk, Nahum, and Psalms commentaries at Qumran. Their principle intersection with the NT is their method of interpretation.
They are of immense value, however, in relation to the history of the Qumran community and the Essenes in general. They generally date to the first century BC and so were copied at Qumran. I locate them as sectarian documents of the Qumran community, therefore, and perhaps less documents of broader Essenism. The sense of Hab. and Nahum that the Kittim (Romans) have broad judgment on the wicked, without hardening into the view against them found in the War Scroll, speaks of a date somewhere around 60-50BC.
Habakkuk Commentary (4QHab)
Historical Data
1. Wicked Priest/Liar versus TR again (1, 2, 8, 9, 10); Wicked Priest (Jonathan Maccabeus) pursued the TR to the house of his exile on Day of Atonement (11); WP defiled temple (12)
2. TR called a priest (2)
3. Kittim=Romans (2), sacrifice to their standards (6)
4. Absalom=Pharisees? (5)
New Testament Intersections
1. Pesher method of interpretation quotes an OT Scripture and then applies it directly to the Qumran sect and its history is much like the way Matthew interprets OT Scripture in relation to the life of Jesus (e.g., Matt. 2:15), although Matthew does not format his interpretation in commentary form.
2. new covenant again (perhaps equated with Covenant of Damascus; 2)
3. Essenes as the elect (5)
4. Idea that they were in the final generation (7); judgment coming (13)
5. circumcise foreskin of heart (11)
Nahum Commentary (4Q169)
Historical Data
It mentions Demetrius III (1) and thus implies that the "seekers of smooth things" were the Pharisees who sided with Demetrius against the Hasmonean king-priest Alexander Janneus (103-76BC) around 88BC. Janneus, the "furious young lion" then crucified 800 Pharisees.
We also learn that "Ephraim" is symbolic for the Pharisees as well (2), as is "House of Separation" (4). "Manasseh" could refer to the Sadducees.
New Testament Intersections
same pesher method of interpretation
Psalms Commentary (4Q171)
Historical Data
1. Liar/Wicked Priest (Jonathan; 1, 2); tried to kill TR because he sent him a "law" (4; in ref. to 4QMMT?)
2. wicked of Ephraim and Manasseh (Pharisees and maybe Sadducees; 2)
3. TR a priest (2, 3)
New Testament Intersections
1. same pesher interpretive method
2. Belial again (2)
3. poor will inherit the world; cf. Matt. 5; Luke (3)
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
The next installment of our run through intertestamental literature for its possible intersections with the New Testament leads us to the Habakkuk, Nahum, and Psalms commentaries at Qumran. Their principle intersection with the NT is their method of interpretation.
They are of immense value, however, in relation to the history of the Qumran community and the Essenes in general. They generally date to the first century BC and so were copied at Qumran. I locate them as sectarian documents of the Qumran community, therefore, and perhaps less documents of broader Essenism. The sense of Hab. and Nahum that the Kittim (Romans) have broad judgment on the wicked, without hardening into the view against them found in the War Scroll, speaks of a date somewhere around 60-50BC.
Habakkuk Commentary (4QHab)
Historical Data
1. Wicked Priest/Liar versus TR again (1, 2, 8, 9, 10); Wicked Priest (Jonathan Maccabeus) pursued the TR to the house of his exile on Day of Atonement (11); WP defiled temple (12)
2. TR called a priest (2)
3. Kittim=Romans (2), sacrifice to their standards (6)
4. Absalom=Pharisees? (5)
New Testament Intersections
1. Pesher method of interpretation quotes an OT Scripture and then applies it directly to the Qumran sect and its history is much like the way Matthew interprets OT Scripture in relation to the life of Jesus (e.g., Matt. 2:15), although Matthew does not format his interpretation in commentary form.
2. new covenant again (perhaps equated with Covenant of Damascus; 2)
3. Essenes as the elect (5)
4. Idea that they were in the final generation (7); judgment coming (13)
5. circumcise foreskin of heart (11)
Nahum Commentary (4Q169)
Historical Data
It mentions Demetrius III (1) and thus implies that the "seekers of smooth things" were the Pharisees who sided with Demetrius against the Hasmonean king-priest Alexander Janneus (103-76BC) around 88BC. Janneus, the "furious young lion" then crucified 800 Pharisees.
We also learn that "Ephraim" is symbolic for the Pharisees as well (2), as is "House of Separation" (4). "Manasseh" could refer to the Sadducees.
New Testament Intersections
same pesher method of interpretation
Psalms Commentary (4Q171)
Historical Data
1. Liar/Wicked Priest (Jonathan; 1, 2); tried to kill TR because he sent him a "law" (4; in ref. to 4QMMT?)
2. wicked of Ephraim and Manasseh (Pharisees and maybe Sadducees; 2)
3. TR a priest (2, 3)
New Testament Intersections
1. same pesher interpretive method
2. Belial again (2)
3. poor will inherit the world; cf. Matt. 5; Luke (3)
New Testament Intersections 5: Qumran Hymns
Previous posts in this series include:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Some may come from the Teacher of Righteousness himself. Geza Vermes points to a comment in Philo's Contemplative Life that indicates hymns were sung after the exposition of Scripture. I am in my mind placing the core hymns between the founding of the Essenes around 150BC and the founding of Qumran around 100BC. For the numbering of the hymns, Vermes' number is first, followed by the older).
New Testament parallels
1. glory of Adam again (1/23)
2. the righteousness of God as God's righteousness again, cf. Rom. 1:17 (2/24; 4/21; 5/22; 12/7 TR; 15/11 TR; 21/17; 22/18)
3. the depravity of humanity, righteousness by grace alone cf. Rom. 3-4 (3/25*; 5/22; 12/7 TR; 16/12; 17/13; 18/14*; 23/19)
4. God's word does not return empty, cf. logos in NT (3/25)
5. Holy Spirit again (4/21; 5/22; 15/11 TR; 18/14; 23/19)
6. demand for subsequent moral perfection (4/21; 6/1)
7. the congregation, assembly (5/22; 12/7)
8. radical predestination (5/22*; 19/15); foreknowledge (6/1* TR)
9. Belial again (7/2; 10/5; 12/7)
10. Messiah as marvelous mighty counselor (9/4); 14/10? 18/14?
11. Law written on heart (12/7 TR)
12. mysteries again (12/7; 18/14; 21/17; 23/19)
13. possible references to resurrection (14/10 TR; 21/17*); imprisonment of dead spirits (18/14; 20/16); everlasting abode illumined with perfect light (24/25)
Historical data
1. possible reference to Pharisees as seekers of smooth things (6/1 TR; 8/3; 12/7 TR)
2. others seeking after Teacher of Righteousness (TR)'s life (7/2 TR); banishing him from the land (12/7 TR)
3. plant imagery (14/10 TR; 18/14)
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Community Rule
Qumran Hymns
Some may come from the Teacher of Righteousness himself. Geza Vermes points to a comment in Philo's Contemplative Life that indicates hymns were sung after the exposition of Scripture. I am in my mind placing the core hymns between the founding of the Essenes around 150BC and the founding of Qumran around 100BC. For the numbering of the hymns, Vermes' number is first, followed by the older).
New Testament parallels
1. glory of Adam again (1/23)
2. the righteousness of God as God's righteousness again, cf. Rom. 1:17 (2/24; 4/21; 5/22; 12/7 TR; 15/11 TR; 21/17; 22/18)
3. the depravity of humanity, righteousness by grace alone cf. Rom. 3-4 (3/25*; 5/22; 12/7 TR; 16/12; 17/13; 18/14*; 23/19)
4. God's word does not return empty, cf. logos in NT (3/25)
5. Holy Spirit again (4/21; 5/22; 15/11 TR; 18/14; 23/19)
6. demand for subsequent moral perfection (4/21; 6/1)
7. the congregation, assembly (5/22; 12/7)
8. radical predestination (5/22*; 19/15); foreknowledge (6/1* TR)
9. Belial again (7/2; 10/5; 12/7)
10. Messiah as marvelous mighty counselor (9/4); 14/10? 18/14?
11. Law written on heart (12/7 TR)
12. mysteries again (12/7; 18/14; 21/17; 23/19)
13. possible references to resurrection (14/10 TR; 21/17*); imprisonment of dead spirits (18/14; 20/16); everlasting abode illumined with perfect light (24/25)
Historical data
1. possible reference to Pharisees as seekers of smooth things (6/1 TR; 8/3; 12/7 TR)
2. others seeking after Teacher of Righteousness (TR)'s life (7/2 TR); banishing him from the land (12/7 TR)
3. plant imagery (14/10 TR; 18/14)
Monday, November 09, 2009
New Testament Intersections 4: Community Rule
In three previous posts I have attempted to catalog intersections between Intertestamental literature and the New Testament, as well as some basics.
They are:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Here are some basics relating to the Community Rule (1QS) of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
Only known from Qumran:
Entry process
1. Examination (done yearly; 1QS 5)
2. One year trial (no communal meal)
3. Examination; property turned over
4. Additional year trial (no communal drink)
5. Examination; property absorbed
Structure
1. Sons of light and sons of darkness (cf. 1 Thess. 5:5; e.g., 1QS 1)
2. Belial cont (1QS 1).
3. Emphasis on perfect living (1QS 1); holiness in an ethical sense (e.g., 1QS 5)
4. Everlasting fire (1QS 2, 4; cf. Matt. 5, 13, 25)
5. Spirit of holiness (1QS 3, 4; cf. Rom. 1:3); Holy Spirit (1QS 8)
6. Sanctification, cleansing of sin by way of baptism (1QS 3)
7. God’s predestination of all things (1QS 3; cf. Rom. 9)
8. Two spirits, vice list proceeding from spirit of falsehood (1QS 4; cf. Gal. 5:9-21); evil inclination cont. (1QS 5)
9. Glory of Adam again (1QS 4)
10. Communal meal and drink (1QS 6; cf. Lord’s supper)
11. Communal holding of property (1QS 6; cf. Acts 2); lying in regard to property very serious (cf. Acts 5)
12. Council a “precious corner stone” (1QS 8; cf. 1 Peter 2:6)
13. Community in wilderness to “prepare the way of the Lord” (1QS 8, 9; cf. John the Baptist)
14. The Way again (1QS 9)
15. Now dual messiahs, one of Judah (king) and one of Aaron (priest); also a Prophet mentioned (1QS 9)
16. Mysteries again (1QS 9)
17. Category of salvation (1QS 10)
18. Category of justification (1QS 3, 11)
19. Righteousness of God as God’s mercy to justify (1QS 11; cf. Rom. 1:17)
20. Flesh as metaphor for humanness/sinfulness (1QS 11)
They are:
Most Apocrypha and Alexandrian Literature
Enochic Literature and 4QMMT
Covenant of Damascus
Here are some basics relating to the Community Rule (1QS) of the Dead Sea Scrolls:
Only known from Qumran:
Entry process
1. Examination (done yearly; 1QS 5)
2. One year trial (no communal meal)
3. Examination; property turned over
4. Additional year trial (no communal drink)
5. Examination; property absorbed
Structure
- Guardian (1QS 6)
- Council of Community (12 men and three priests; 1QS 7); at least one priest for 10 elders (1QS 6)
- Interpreter of the Law (1QS 6, 8)
1. Sons of light and sons of darkness (cf. 1 Thess. 5:5; e.g., 1QS 1)
2. Belial cont (1QS 1).
3. Emphasis on perfect living (1QS 1); holiness in an ethical sense (e.g., 1QS 5)
4. Everlasting fire (1QS 2, 4; cf. Matt. 5, 13, 25)
5. Spirit of holiness (1QS 3, 4; cf. Rom. 1:3); Holy Spirit (1QS 8)
6. Sanctification, cleansing of sin by way of baptism (1QS 3)
7. God’s predestination of all things (1QS 3; cf. Rom. 9)
8. Two spirits, vice list proceeding from spirit of falsehood (1QS 4; cf. Gal. 5:9-21); evil inclination cont. (1QS 5)
9. Glory of Adam again (1QS 4)
10. Communal meal and drink (1QS 6; cf. Lord’s supper)
11. Communal holding of property (1QS 6; cf. Acts 2); lying in regard to property very serious (cf. Acts 5)
12. Council a “precious corner stone” (1QS 8; cf. 1 Peter 2:6)
13. Community in wilderness to “prepare the way of the Lord” (1QS 8, 9; cf. John the Baptist)
14. The Way again (1QS 9)
15. Now dual messiahs, one of Judah (king) and one of Aaron (priest); also a Prophet mentioned (1QS 9)
16. Mysteries again (1QS 9)
17. Category of salvation (1QS 10)
18. Category of justification (1QS 3, 11)
19. Righteousness of God as God’s mercy to justify (1QS 11; cf. Rom. 1:17)
20. Flesh as metaphor for humanness/sinfulness (1QS 11)
New Testament Intersections 2: Covenant of Damascus
In an earlier post I went through the "Enochic" literature up to 4QMMT, a document that possibly stands at the very moment of the birth of the Essenes as a distinct sect.
Next I want to look at the Covenant of Damascus, both for clues to the history of the period and for possible intersections with early Christianity. I have not yet thought of significant parallels between the Temple Scroll and the New Testament, other than a general sense that the current temple in Jerusalem was not legitimate as it stood.
Covenant of Damascus
History of Movement (all in I.)
1. A plant sprang up 390 years after the Babylonian captivity--corresponds to the founding of the Hasidim? in the early 100s BC, as also mentioned in the Apocalypse of Weeks (ca. 170BC).
2. Wander for twenty years (ca. 170-150BC)--period of Hasidim involvement in Maccabean crisis
3. Teacher of Righteousness gives leadership to movement about 150BC, presumably when the Scoffer (Jonathan Maccabeus) assumed the role of high priest. The seekers of smooth things are probably the Pharisees, other Hasidim who sided with Jonathan over the Teacher (cf. CD VII).
4. Perhaps flees to Damascus with many Hasidim, where this covenant is formed. Not sure if we should take Damascus literally.
New Testament Intersections
1. The expectation that one would walk "in perfection"? (CD II), although it is hard to find any NT writings that use the word "perfection" in relation to holiness or ethical behavior in general
2. Mention of following "the way" in association with Damascus (CD II; Mark 1:3; Acts 9:2)--very interesting!
3. Talk of a "guilty inclination" (CD II; cf. James 1:14)
4. Mention of Holy Spirit (CD II)
5. Mystery of God's forgiveness (CD III; Rom. 11; Eph. 4)
6. glory of Adam (CD III; Rom. 3:23; Heb. 2:10)
7. elect within Israel (CD IV; Rom. 9)
8. Use of the word "Belial" for Satan (CD IV; cf. 2 Corinthians 6:15)
9. Mention of the tradition of Jannes and Jambres (CD V; cf. 2 Tim. 3:8)
10. Expectation of a king messiah (e.g., CD VII) who is also a priest messiah (e.g., CD B II)
11. A new covenant (e.g., CD VIII; 1 Cor. 11:25)
12. “angels of holiness in their midst” (CD XV); some say relevance to head coverings in 1 Corinthians 11 (Fitzmeyer), although I don't see it
13. Jesus counters the saying “You shall keep your vow” (Matt. 5) with you should not swear. This saying is mentioned as binding in CD XVI, making one wonder if Jesus and James are reacting to some overemphasis on vows?
14. The collective group is called the “assembly” (e.g., XII), which is ekklesia (church) in Greek.
Very interesting. Very difficult to know the weight of any one parallel. How widespread, for example, was using Belial for Satan? But the more "blips" on the parallel screen, the more likely we should see early Christianity at least partially growing out of Essene soil.
Next I want to look at the Covenant of Damascus, both for clues to the history of the period and for possible intersections with early Christianity. I have not yet thought of significant parallels between the Temple Scroll and the New Testament, other than a general sense that the current temple in Jerusalem was not legitimate as it stood.
Covenant of Damascus
History of Movement (all in I.)
1. A plant sprang up 390 years after the Babylonian captivity--corresponds to the founding of the Hasidim? in the early 100s BC, as also mentioned in the Apocalypse of Weeks (ca. 170BC).
2. Wander for twenty years (ca. 170-150BC)--period of Hasidim involvement in Maccabean crisis
3. Teacher of Righteousness gives leadership to movement about 150BC, presumably when the Scoffer (Jonathan Maccabeus) assumed the role of high priest. The seekers of smooth things are probably the Pharisees, other Hasidim who sided with Jonathan over the Teacher (cf. CD VII).
4. Perhaps flees to Damascus with many Hasidim, where this covenant is formed. Not sure if we should take Damascus literally.
New Testament Intersections
1. The expectation that one would walk "in perfection"? (CD II), although it is hard to find any NT writings that use the word "perfection" in relation to holiness or ethical behavior in general
2. Mention of following "the way" in association with Damascus (CD II; Mark 1:3; Acts 9:2)--very interesting!
3. Talk of a "guilty inclination" (CD II; cf. James 1:14)
4. Mention of Holy Spirit (CD II)
5. Mystery of God's forgiveness (CD III; Rom. 11; Eph. 4)
6. glory of Adam (CD III; Rom. 3:23; Heb. 2:10)
7. elect within Israel (CD IV; Rom. 9)
8. Use of the word "Belial" for Satan (CD IV; cf. 2 Corinthians 6:15)
9. Mention of the tradition of Jannes and Jambres (CD V; cf. 2 Tim. 3:8)
10. Expectation of a king messiah (e.g., CD VII) who is also a priest messiah (e.g., CD B II)
11. A new covenant (e.g., CD VIII; 1 Cor. 11:25)
12. “angels of holiness in their midst” (CD XV); some say relevance to head coverings in 1 Corinthians 11 (Fitzmeyer), although I don't see it
13. Jesus counters the saying “You shall keep your vow” (Matt. 5) with you should not swear. This saying is mentioned as binding in CD XVI, making one wonder if Jesus and James are reacting to some overemphasis on vows?
14. The collective group is called the “assembly” (e.g., XII), which is ekklesia (church) in Greek.
Very interesting. Very difficult to know the weight of any one parallel. How widespread, for example, was using Belial for Satan? But the more "blips" on the parallel screen, the more likely we should see early Christianity at least partially growing out of Essene soil.
Friday, November 06, 2009
Some New Testament Intersections 1
I was fascinated to see Geza Vermes, who is Jewish, use the language of the "intertestamental" period in his revised Dead Sea Scrolls Translated. Early Judaism would seem to be the more accepted term in neutral scholarship. But fascinatingly, he seems to be speaking of the years 160ish BC to AD70 or so, presumably because he considers Daniel to have been finished in the late 160s BC.
Thought I would gather some notes on important parallels between the next phase of my intertestamental class and the New Testament:
Book of the Watchers (ca. 200BC)
Thought I would gather some notes on important parallels between the next phase of my intertestamental class and the New Testament:
Book of the Watchers (ca. 200BC)
- Jude 14-15 of course quote 1 Enoch 1.
- Jude 6; 2 Peter 2:4; and 1 Peter 3:19-20 all seem to refer to the story of angels having sex with human women in 1 Enoch 6 and following, based on Genesis 6.
- first recorded journey apocalypse, which relates to revelation
- 1 Enoch 22 is perhaps the earliest differentiation of the dead in the underworld in Jewish literature.
- no significant parallels
- perhaps earliest example of "testament" genre, begins to raise (along with 1 Enoch) the issue of pseudonymity, how it was understood in terms of genres of literature
- only in the most general way stands in the anti-current temple and need for legitimate priest tradition
- excepting Daniel from discussion, oldest historical apocalypse
- only in the most general way stands in the "new age around the corner" tradition
- first real anticipation of a messianic figure around the corner in intertestamental literature
- continues sense of coming regathering of Israel from exile (or could be interpreted to mean general resurrection, but I go with the former)
- "rewritten Scripture," illustrates the acceptability of recasting biblical stories sometimes in quite remarkable ways (e.g., Mastema rather than God tells Abraham to sacrifice Isaac)
- 23:20 mentions returning Israel to "the way," meaning the way of righteousness (23:21).
- possible eternal existence of righteous spirits, but no resurrection (23:31)
- Possibly sent from the founder of the Essenes, the Teacher of Righteousness, to Jonathan Maccabeus as he received the title of high priest in 152BC, possibly witnesses the origins of the name "Essene" as "doers" of the Law as one subset of the Hasidim coalesces around a disenfranchised priest descended from Zadok
- Provides important background to the phrase, "works of Law" in Galatians and Romans, where it relates directly to intra-Jewish squabbles over the particulars of keeping the Law, especially as the Law related to matters of purity, calendar, and so forth
more to come...
Wednesday, November 04, 2009
The Impact of Background Literature
I am teaching a course on "Intertestamental Literature" this semester. I do not believe you need to be able to read the New Testament in its historical context to read it as Christian Scripture and God's living word to believers today. But it seems impossible to understand what these books actually meant without some sense of this background.
Any curriculum that truly aims for its students to understand the Bible in context should significantly engage this material. It provides such depth of understanding, reveals our inconsistencies! It holds a mirror up to ourselves and exposes the extensiveness to which our varied Christian traditions control our interpretations. It is no surprise that John Piper discouraged engagement with this material in his debates with Tom Wright--it reveals the fact that Piper's Calvinist theology derives more from Reformation theology than from what the New Testament actually meant.
I'll leave it at that. Like I said, one can certainly use the Scriptures Christianly, as God's living word to believers today, without being able to read it in historical context. As long as one does this in a mature community of faith, you should not go wrong. The common Christian understanding of these texts is a stable and enduring understanding. But this reading, which we might call theological interpretation, does not change the actual meaning these texts had originally, which was largely a function of their ancient contexts. A Christian hermeneutic that cannot account for both is either not fully Christian (over-emphasis on the original meaning) or shallow (over-emphasis on the Christian understanding).
IMHO
Any curriculum that truly aims for its students to understand the Bible in context should significantly engage this material. It provides such depth of understanding, reveals our inconsistencies! It holds a mirror up to ourselves and exposes the extensiveness to which our varied Christian traditions control our interpretations. It is no surprise that John Piper discouraged engagement with this material in his debates with Tom Wright--it reveals the fact that Piper's Calvinist theology derives more from Reformation theology than from what the New Testament actually meant.
I'll leave it at that. Like I said, one can certainly use the Scriptures Christianly, as God's living word to believers today, without being able to read it in historical context. As long as one does this in a mature community of faith, you should not go wrong. The common Christian understanding of these texts is a stable and enduring understanding. But this reading, which we might call theological interpretation, does not change the actual meaning these texts had originally, which was largely a function of their ancient contexts. A Christian hermeneutic that cannot account for both is either not fully Christian (over-emphasis on the original meaning) or shallow (over-emphasis on the Christian understanding).
IMHO
Wednesday, October 21, 2009
Explanatory Notes: Jude 14-16
I know I'm getting way ahead of myself in the General Epistles, but we are in 1 Enoch in Intertestamental Literature, so I thought I would go ahead and blog on Jude 14-16.
______
14-15 And the seventh from Adam, Enoch, also prophesied about these, saying, "Behold, the Lord has come with his ten thousand holy ones to effect judgment against all and to convict every soul in relation to all their works of ungodliness which they commit in godlessness and in relation to all the terrible things that ungodly sinners speak against him."
Up to this point Jude's interaction with apocalyptic and Enochic traditions has been very general. But now Jude explicitly quotes the pre-Christian Jewish book 1 Enoch (1.9). 1 Enoch is a library of five distinct units, the first of which is called the "Book of the Watchers" (chaps. 1-36), in which this quote appears. Although the Book of the Watchers probably itself is made up of parts written at different times, something close to its final form probably dates to around 200BC.
We have no evidence to suggest that Jude is quoting some independent tradition that 1 Enoch also quotes. Nothing from any part of 1 Enoch is known in the Old Testament and the Book of the Watchers was apparently composed originally in Aramaic. Even this particular part of the Book of the Watchers was probably added as a kind of introduction as the various materials of these chapters were collected and put together.
The presence of the Enochic books among the Dead Sea Scrolls, along with their similar apocalyptic outlook, may suggest that they were particularly valued by the Essenes, perhaps even that the Essenes considered them Scripture. Jude does not give us enough evidence to know whether he considered 1 Enoch to be Scripture, although he does seem to take the attribution of the quote to Enoch literally. Here is a warning that the way the New Testament authors referenced the Old Testament and other Jewish writings may simply reflect the way people at the time referenced such books and understood authorship, the point being not the attribution but the content of what is referenced.
One wonders whether there might have been some significant intersection between the Essenes and the earliest Christians. John the Baptist seems to bear at least a superficial resemblance to them. The Essenes may also have been the most apocalyptic of the known Jewish groups--and thus more similar to the earliest Christians than either the Pharisees or the Sadducees. The heavy intersection of Jude with possibly Essene literature--including the possible allusion to the Testament of Moses in Jude 9, also makes us wonder. At the same time, Jesus' emphasis on inclusion and reclamation of sinners probably would not have sat well with most Essenes.
Although it is unclear in Jude 9 whether the Lord God or the Lord Jesus Christ is in view, Jude 17, 21, and 25 all clearly refer to Jesus as Lord. We should probably therefore understand the Lord of this verse as the Lord Jesus Christ, who will come in judgment with ten thousands of angels. This fits with what Paul says in 1 Thessalonians 4:16 where Jesus descends with the voice of the archangel, probably to commence the judgment of men (1 Cor. 6:2) and angels (6:3).
16 These are grumblers, complainers, going according to their own desires, and their mouth speaks boastful things, showing favoritism for the benefit [to themselves].
The material that Jude shares in common with 2 Peter 2 now continues (2 Pet. 2:18). If we continue with the assumption that 2 Peter is drawing on Jude, it is fascinating that 2 Peter has omitted the references to 1 Enoch. As we saw with the omission of the Testament of Moses material, some have suggested that 2 Peter is already demonstrating a movement toward a New Testament canon--one that does not include the Enochic literature.
The list is, as the earlier lists, more generic than specific. Jude is railing against individuals within the Christian community who do not belong there, and these are thus characteristics that should not apply to Christians. They should not be grumblers and complainers. They should follow God's will rather than satisfying their own desires. They should not boast but trust in God's grace, power, and glory. They should not show favoritism--especially not for their own benefit since Christians are to put others above their own interests.
______
14-15 And the seventh from Adam, Enoch, also prophesied about these, saying, "Behold, the Lord has come with his ten thousand holy ones to effect judgment against all and to convict every soul in relation to all their works of ungodliness which they commit in godlessness and in relation to all the terrible things that ungodly sinners speak against him."
Up to this point Jude's interaction with apocalyptic and Enochic traditions has been very general. But now Jude explicitly quotes the pre-Christian Jewish book 1 Enoch (1.9). 1 Enoch is a library of five distinct units, the first of which is called the "Book of the Watchers" (chaps. 1-36), in which this quote appears. Although the Book of the Watchers probably itself is made up of parts written at different times, something close to its final form probably dates to around 200BC.
We have no evidence to suggest that Jude is quoting some independent tradition that 1 Enoch also quotes. Nothing from any part of 1 Enoch is known in the Old Testament and the Book of the Watchers was apparently composed originally in Aramaic. Even this particular part of the Book of the Watchers was probably added as a kind of introduction as the various materials of these chapters were collected and put together.
The presence of the Enochic books among the Dead Sea Scrolls, along with their similar apocalyptic outlook, may suggest that they were particularly valued by the Essenes, perhaps even that the Essenes considered them Scripture. Jude does not give us enough evidence to know whether he considered 1 Enoch to be Scripture, although he does seem to take the attribution of the quote to Enoch literally. Here is a warning that the way the New Testament authors referenced the Old Testament and other Jewish writings may simply reflect the way people at the time referenced such books and understood authorship, the point being not the attribution but the content of what is referenced.
One wonders whether there might have been some significant intersection between the Essenes and the earliest Christians. John the Baptist seems to bear at least a superficial resemblance to them. The Essenes may also have been the most apocalyptic of the known Jewish groups--and thus more similar to the earliest Christians than either the Pharisees or the Sadducees. The heavy intersection of Jude with possibly Essene literature--including the possible allusion to the Testament of Moses in Jude 9, also makes us wonder. At the same time, Jesus' emphasis on inclusion and reclamation of sinners probably would not have sat well with most Essenes.
Although it is unclear in Jude 9 whether the Lord God or the Lord Jesus Christ is in view, Jude 17, 21, and 25 all clearly refer to Jesus as Lord. We should probably therefore understand the Lord of this verse as the Lord Jesus Christ, who will come in judgment with ten thousands of angels. This fits with what Paul says in 1 Thessalonians 4:16 where Jesus descends with the voice of the archangel, probably to commence the judgment of men (1 Cor. 6:2) and angels (6:3).
16 These are grumblers, complainers, going according to their own desires, and their mouth speaks boastful things, showing favoritism for the benefit [to themselves].
The material that Jude shares in common with 2 Peter 2 now continues (2 Pet. 2:18). If we continue with the assumption that 2 Peter is drawing on Jude, it is fascinating that 2 Peter has omitted the references to 1 Enoch. As we saw with the omission of the Testament of Moses material, some have suggested that 2 Peter is already demonstrating a movement toward a New Testament canon--one that does not include the Enochic literature.
The list is, as the earlier lists, more generic than specific. Jude is railing against individuals within the Christian community who do not belong there, and these are thus characteristics that should not apply to Christians. They should not be grumblers and complainers. They should follow God's will rather than satisfying their own desires. They should not boast but trust in God's grace, power, and glory. They should not show favoritism--especially not for their own benefit since Christians are to put others above their own interests.
Wednesday, October 14, 2009
Intertestamental Summaries...
Test on Friday... here's a summary of where we've been so far:
- Destruction of Jerusalem, 586BC; Cyrus allows return, 538BC; Temple rebuilt, 516BC
- Persian period--539-332BC
- Elephantine papyri--oldest surviving Jewish documents (not including inscriptions), Aramaic papyri from the 400s, indicate a parallel temple existed there, including sacrifices; destroyed 410BC by Egyptian priests
- 1 Esdras, combination of Ezra material from 2 Chron., Ezra, and Nehemiah; not in Roman Catholic (RC) Bible but in Orthodox; extra story of dinner contest with Zerubbabel
- Tobit, maybe from Persian period, developing sense of angels and demons (with names), popular magic, has the Golden Rule, almsgiving has atoning value, no sense of afterlife or real return from exile, in RC Bible
- Hellenistic period--332-63BC, Ptolemies rule from Egypt till 198, then Seleucids from Syria... Romans took over in 63BC.
- Septuagint, Greek translation of the Law, made in Egypt around 250BC, first Scripture apparently to be translated into another language
- Letter of Aristeas, the story of the translation of the Law, dates to early 100s BC; 72 translators, considers God the same as Zeus, food laws are explained philosophically
- Egyptian Judaism around 200BC a bit "unorthodox": Artapanus has Moses inventing Egyptian animal cults; Ezekiel the Tragedian has Moses sitting on God's throne over Israel
- Competitive historiography in Egypt: Manetho in 200s BC, Egyptian, argues that the Israelites were forced out of Egypt because they were lepers; Demetrius the Chronographer defends Exodus--earliest datable Jew writing in Greek, earliest witness to the Septuagint
- Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) in Hebrew around 200BC, translated into Greek around 132BC in Egypt; in the RC Bible; poor view of women; no afterlife but how a person dies shows how they have truly lived; good works atone for sin; earliest testimony to the three-fold division of the Jewish canon; Matthew seems to draw on it to compare Jesus to divine wisdom, which Sirach compares to the Law; significant parallels between James and Sirach (slow to speak, slow to anger)
- Rapid Hellenization of Jerusalem prior to Maccabean crisis (Jason takes it from Onias III by bribing Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Syrian king; Menelaus then does the same, but he is not even a hereditary priest). Onias III murdered. Onias IV goes to Egypt and builds a temple at Leontopolis.
- Maccabean crisis 167-164BC, thereafter Hasmonians (Maccabeans) rule, first as high priests (Jonathan the first in 152BC), then as kings (Aristobulus the first in 103BC)
- 1 Maccabees; in RC Bible; dates to early 1st century BC; most accurate source of Maccabean era, including the background of Hanukkah; no sense of afterlife; gives background to what "zeal for the Law" was, who the hasidim or "faithful ones" were; sense of waiting for a prophet to come
- 2 Maccabees; in RC Bible; dates to early 1st century BC; very theologized portrayal of the actual crisis, perhaps Pharisaic; very strong physical understanding of resurrection, intestines and all, probably not a general resurrection but resurrection of martyrs and unpunished wicked; Judas Maccabeus offers sacrifices so that certain fallen will be resurrected; many argue earliest instance of ex nihilo creation, although most probably date this development to second century AD in conflict with Gnosticism; idea that righteous deaths can satisfy God's wrath toward Israel, bring it to an end; sense that God punishes Israel differently from Gentiles (with Gentiles He stores up His wrath and then obliterates them, with Israel He punishes them as He goes)
- 4 Maccabees; not in RC Bible; focuses on the 7 righteous brothers story; very philosophical, Stoic; strong sense of substitutionary atonement; immortality of the soul
- Additions to Esther, 5 Greek expansions interspersed throughout, cleans up some theological issues (like the failure to mention God), fills in other details, Jerome put the expansions at the end of the Hebrew Esther
- Additions to Daniel: Susanna, Prayer of Azariah, Bel and the Dragon
- Two versions of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon has two stories--the catching of priest eating food for Bel and Daniel making a dragon explode (then he goes to lion's den again and gets a special visit from Habakkuk)
- Judith; in RC Bible; a bit of a parable, not meant to be taken literally; stereotypical view of women with allowance for significant exceptions
- Baruch; in RC Bible; sense of Israel still in exile
- Letter of Jeremiah; 6th chapter of Baruch in Vulgate and King James
- Pharisees: "separate ones," about 6000 at the time of John Hyrcanus, most popular group, strong belief in resurrection, "those who seek smooth things" according to Essenes at Qumran, strong sense of common identity, followed well developed "traditions of the elders"
- Sadducees: descendants of Zadok, possibly upper class, sometimes displaced priests, perhaps often high priests at time of New Testament, less sectarian, rejected Pharisaic traditions of elders and resurrection, had their own purity traditions
- Essenes: "doers" of the Law; lived communally; some married, most were celibate; Dead Sea community was one such; avoided oath taking; strictest in sabbath observance; rejected legitimacy of Jerusalem temple; multi-year entrance process; well developed angelology; deterministic; immortality of spirits?
- Revolutionaries: more ad hoc than an organized "philosophy"; Zealots and Sicarii probably came into existence around the time of the Jewish War (AD66-73); Judas the Galilean around 6AD; Theudas in AD45-46; the Egyptian
- Psalms of Solomon, late first century BC, chap. 17 a principal text on Jewish expectation of a military messiah who would restore the political fortunes of Israel, evokes images of the Roman take-over in 63BC.
- Josephus, late 1st century Jewish historian, Jewish general in War who surrendered to Romans and in Jewish War claims that God went over to the Jewish side, later Antiquites less worried about putting Romans in a good light. You have to read between the lines.
- Philo, Jewish commentator on the Law who heavily brought Middle Platonic philosophical ideas to bear on his interpretations
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